Sensitivity to reward and sensitivity to punishment rating scales: A validation study on the Romanian population

The “BIS/BAS” Scales (Carver & White, 1994) and the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ; Torrubia, Avila, Molto, & Caseras, 2001) are two self-report instruments used for the assessment of Gray’s concepts of impulsivity and anxiety. In this paper, we examined both instruments in terms of their factorial structure and their construct validity using data from 345 Romanian undergraduate students. The results supported the original factor structure of the BIS/BAS scales, but indicated that a three-factor solution is preferable to the original two-factor solution in the case of the SPSRQ. Both instruments demonstrated good construct validity, correlating with other constructs such as Eysenck’s extraversion, neuroticism and some facets from Strelau’s temperament survey in the expected direction.     

Mapping Gray’s BIS and BAS constructs onto Factor 1 and Factor 2 of Hare’s Psychopathy Checklist – Revised

Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST; Gray, 1987; Gray & McNaughton, 2000) has proven to be a valuable tool for understanding psychopathy (e.g., Fowles, 1980, 1988; Newman & Malterer, 2009; Poythress et al., 2008). Recent research has linked two RST constructs, the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioral Activation System (BAS), to individuals with primary psychopathy and secondary psychopathy (Lykken, 1995; Newman, MacCoon, Vaughn, & Sadeh, 2005): Primary psychopaths manifest low BIS reactivity and secondary psychopaths manifest high BAS reactivity. In the present study, we examine the relationships between the BIS/BAS constructs and Factors 1 and 2 of the Psychopathy Checklist – Revised (PCL-R) in a sample of 472 incarcerated male offenders. Paralleling their relationships with primary and secondary psychopathy, the BIS/BAS constructs were differentially related to the two PCL-R factors. Specifically, the influence of the BIS was found to be more prominent than the influence of the BAS for Factor 1, and the influence of the BAS was more prominent than that of the BIS for Factor 2.     

The effects of behavioral inhibition/approach system as predictors of Internet addiction in adolescents

This study aimed to determine how the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioral Approach System (BAS) affect Internet addiction in adolescents. Two hundred and eleven high school students participated in this study and completed the Young’s Internet Addiction Test (IAT), BIS/BAS scales, and several self-administered questionnaires about depression, anxiety, and impulsivity. Hierarchical regressions showed that BIS and BAS × BIS emerged as significant predictors of IAT; however, only BAS-fun seeking subscale predicted IAT among BAS related subscales. In further analyses, the BAS-fun seeking subscale was mediated by impulsivity and anxiety, and BIS was mediated by anxiety and depression. The current findings imply that BIS and BAS interdependently influence vulnerability to Internet addiction through both shared (anxiety) and different (depression and impulsivity, respectively) pathways.     

An Examination of the Factor,Convergent, and Discriminant Validity of the Behavioral Inhibition System and Behavioral Activation System Scales

The Behavioral Inhibition System and Behavioral Activation System Scales (BIS/BAS scales) are the most widely used measures designed to assess Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory. However, questions remain regarding its factor, convergent, and discriminant validity. We assessed these properties in two samples of undergraduates (N = 723, N = 103). In Study 1, confirmatory factor analysis supported previous findings that suggested removal of several items, resulting in acceptable fit for a four-factor model. Convergent and discriminant validity were assessed for the original and revised scales. In Study 2, a public speaking task was used to assess validity of the scales in reference to positive/negative affect. Convergent and discriminant validity for the revised scales were not substantially different from the original scales. We suggest that future researchers should consider the use of the revised measure we describe. We also suggest that the creation of a revised BIS/BAS scale using new items may be warranted.     

Reinforcement sensitivity theory and symptoms of personality disorder: Specificity of the BIS in Cluster C and BAS in Cluster B

Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory, consisting of the behavioral inhibition (BIS) and behavioral activation (BAS), is frequently used to represent basic dimensions of psychopathology. However, notably few investigations have examined the link between the BIS/BAS and symptoms of personality disorder (PD). Although the Fight-Flight-Freeze System has emerged in the revised model as an important aspect of motivation, the BIS (linked to anxiety) and BAS (linked to impulsivity) have been the primary foci. The current investigation uses a dimensional measure of PD, the schedule for nonadaptive and adaptive personality (SNAP; Clark, 1993) applied to two independent samples of English-speaking participants: undergraduates (n = 276) and clinical patients (n = 47). Results were consistent across both samples, demonstrating that symptoms of Cluster B PDs are indicative of high BAS levels whereas symptoms of Cluster C PDs are characterized by high BIS levels.     

Throwing more light on the dark side of psychopathy: An extension of previous findings for the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory

Despite previous studies of psychopathy and the motivational systems of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) of personality, few have examined psychopathy in light of the revised RST model. In a large sample (N = 779) of young adults, we expand on Hughes, Moore, Morris, and Corr’s (2012) preliminary findings relating primary/secondary psychopathy to revised RST’s three systems: Flight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS), Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS), and Behavioral Approach System (BAS). Converging results between Hughes et al. and the current study emphasize three major findings: (1) primary psychopathy is negatively related to the BIS as well as the FFFS; (2) primary psychopathy is positively related to goal-driven behavior of the BAS; and, (3) secondary psychopathy is positively related to impulsivity reflected in the BAS. The FFFS was incrementally predictive of primary but not secondary psychopathy. No evidence for a BAS × BIS interaction in psychopathy was found. Results are discussed in terms of future research directions.     

Behavioral inhibition and triallelic genotyping of the serotonin transporter promoter (5-HTTLPR) polymorphism

To examine the genetic bases of the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and the behavioral approach system (BAS), we evaluated the association between the BIS, the BAS, and a functional length polymorphism in the promoter of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) in an unscreened sample of undergraduates (N = 211); analyses were conducted using a two-variant (i.e., biallelic) genotyping and three-variant (i.e., triallelic) genotyping of the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism. People with one or two copies of the low-expressing alleles reported stronger endorsement of the BIS than people who were homozygous for the high-expressing alleles; this association was found for triallelic but not biallelic genotyping of the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism. There was no association between the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism and the BAS scales.     

The role of BIS/BAS in the vulnerability for depression in adolescent girls

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), the original (i.e. Gray, 1982) or revised (Gray & McNaughton, 2000), has yet to be used as a framework for investigating vulnerability to Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) in adolescents. The present study employed a high-risk design to examine whether aberrant BIS-FFFS/BAS activity was similarly present in both depressed girls and girls at high risk for depression.MethodsN = 85 age-matched biological daughters of mothers with differential MDD status: (a) MDD (n = 17), (b) high-risk (n = 34), and (c) healthy controls (n = 34) completed measures of the BIS/BAS, depression, and anxiety.ResultsMDD girls scored significantly higher on BIS than healthy controls but not high-risk girls, and the high-risk and control groups did not differ. No group differences were found on BAS or FFFS-Fear.ConclusionsElevated BIS was not identified as a vulnerability factor for MDD; however, it does distinguish depressed adolescents from healthy controls.     

Comparison of the construct validity of the Gray–Wilson Personality Questionnaire and the BIS/BAS scales

345 subjects completed a translated, shortened version of the Gray–Wilson Personality Questionnaire (GWPQ), along with Russian versions of Carver and White’s BIS/BAS scales, the Eysenck Personality Profiler, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, and Spielberger’s State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Exploratory factor analysis of GWPQ items pointed to a three-factor solution and three new scales were created which demonstrated adequate psychometric characteristics. Confirmatory factor analysis of the BIS/BAS scales showed that a four-factor model best fitted the data but the three BAS subscales should be treated as sub-factors of a second-order factor. Structural equation modelling showed that GWPQ scales generally explained Eysenck’s dimensions better than BIS/BAS scales. The distinction between GWPQ and Carver and White’s scales mainly concerned BAS measures. GWPQ BAS captured more of Psychoticism, whereas Carver and White’s BAS captured more of Extraversion.     

Contrasting Regulatory Focus and Reinforcement Sensitivity: A Daily Diary Study of Goal Pursuit and Emotion

This study examined the moderating effects of motivational orientation on daily affect and goal pursuit. Based on recent revisions to Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, measures of BIS (BIS-r and Fight-Flight-Freeze System or FFFS), BAS, and regulatory focus (Promotion and Prevention) were administered to 84 college students who participated in a 14-day diary study. Diary items assessed goal-directed activities and positive and negative affect (PA and NA). Results showed that higher FFFS and Promotion were consistently associated with higher NA and PA, respectively, and FFFS was also associated with avoidance of responsibilities. Higher Promotion predicted greater daily goal progress and tendencies to rate goals as more promotion- and prevention-focused. Relationships between daily goal-directed activities and both sadness and satisfaction were moderated by BIS-r. Inconsistent with our hypothesis, low BAS Reward Responsiveness predicted increased enthusiasm with greater goal progress. A trend in the data showed evidence of regulatory fit in daily activities predicted by both Promotion and Prevention. Implications for the theoretical and practical distinctions between measures of motivational orientation are discussed.     

Characterizing Carver and White’s BIS/BAS subscales using the Five Factor Model of personality

This study examined BIS/BAS scales (Carver & White, 1994) assessment of Gray’s revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory in the light of the Five-Factor Model of personality—assessed via NEO-PI-R domains and facets—in a mixed-gender sample of 329 undergraduates. Exploratory factor analysis confirmed a 5-factor solution structure of the BIS/BAS scales, with BIS-scale divided into BIS-Anxiety and BIS-Fear factors, besides the original three BAS factors. BIS-Anxiety was found to represent Gray’s anxiety (high Neuroticism and low Extraversion), being also distinguished from BIS-Fear by high Agreeableness, as expected. Interestingly, Conscientiousness showed divergent relationships to BIS-Anxiety (+) and BIS-Fear (−) as well. It is noteworthy that Agreeableness and Conscientiousness also marked distinct facets of BAS-related activity: distinctions in terms of low vs. high Conscientiousness pointed to differential measure of sensation-seeking and impulsiveness (BAS-Fun Seeking) vs. reward-orientation in goal-directed behavior (BAS-Reward Responsiveness, BAS-Drive), with low Agreeableness additionally emphasizing a competitive interpersonal style for approaching goals (BAS-Drive). Our findings suggest that BAS total scores could be obscuring differential associations at the subscales level, and encourage further research on personality traits underlying each component of BAS activation.     

Facets of mindfulness mediate behavioral inhibition systems and emotion dysregulation

Behavioral motivation is regulated through the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and the behavioral approach system (BAS), which underlie responses to emotional stimuli and are thought to influence emotion dysregulation. Research shows that mindfulness may increase the efficacy of emotion regulation among those with psychological symptoms, but the relationships between behavioral motivation and mindfulness have been only minimally explored. This study examines relationships between behavioral motivation systems and emotion dysregulation as mediated by mindfulness facets. Mediation was tested in a sample of 246 college students (M_age = 19.28, 61.8% female, 81.3% Caucasian) using a multiple mediator bootstrapping method. Results revealed an indirect relationship between BIS sensitivity and increased emotion dysregulation through underutilization of three distinct mindfulness skills: act with awareness, non-judging, and non-reactivity. Mindfulness facets did not mediate relationships between BAS sensitivity and emotion dysregulation, though BAS Reward Responsiveness directly predicted increased emotion dysregulation while BAS Drive was marginally associated with decreased emotion dysregulation. Findings delineate specific relationships between BIS/BAS, mindfulness skills, and emotion dysregulation while suggesting mindfulness training may be useful for BIS sensitive individuals.     

Personality types and behavioural activation and inhibition in adolescents

A hypothesis relating personality types to activity of the Behavioural Approach System (BAS) and the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) was tested in a sample of 1015 10–18-year-old adolescents. According to this hypothesis, Undercontrollers could be characterized as individuals with overactive BAS, Overcontrollers as individuals with overactive BIS, and Resilients as individuals with low activity of both systems. These predictions were generally confirmed. Psychometrically measured BAS and BIS appeared to be the strongest predictors of Undercontrolled and Overcontrolled prototypes, respectively. Resilients were characterized by low scores on both dimensions.     

Covering all the BAS’s: A closer look at the links between BIS,BAS, and socio-emotional functioning in childhood

The purpose of this study was to investigate associations between the BIS, BAS, and socio-emotional functioning in childhood. Participants were 368 children (181 boys) ranging in age from 9 to 13 years (M_age = 10.16, SD = .95). Children provided self-report assessments of BIS/BAS sensitivity, indices of internalizing problems (e.g., depression, social anxiety, loneliness), and perceptions of their peer relations. Parents also rated child internalizing and externalizing problems. Results from confirmatory factor-analysis suggested that the three-factor solution for the BAS (typically reported in adult samples) provided a better fit of the data than a one-factor (typically employed in previous studies with children). Moreover, BAS subscales were associated differentially with different indices of socio-emotional functioning. Support for the joint subsystems hypothesis was also found, with specific BAS subscales serving as moderators of the relations between the BIS and socio-emotional functioning.     

BIS- and BAS-activation and study outcomes: A mediation study

Building on Gray’s original Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, we examined how individual differences in students’ activation of the behavioral inhibition (BIS) and the behavioral approach (BAS) systems relate to overcommitment to one’s studies and study engagement, and how these two forms of heavy study investment relate to three academically relevant outcomes. Using data from 565 Dutch university students, structural equation modeling showed that BIS-activation was positively associated with overcommitment to one’s studies, which in turn was positively related to exhaustion and the intention to quit one’s studies. BAS-activation was positively associated with study engagement, which in turn was negatively related to exhaustion and the intention to quit, and positively related to academic performance. Bootstrapping techniques revealed a mediating role of the two forms of heavy study investment. Apparently, BIS- and BAS-activation are associated with heavy study behavior, student well-being, and study outcomes.     

Anxiety between personality and cognition: The gray zone

The aim of the study was to explore relations between Gray’s revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST) systems (Behavior Inhibition, Behavior Activation and Fight/Flight/Freeze System – BIS, BAS and FFFS) and two cognitive vulnerabilities to anxiety disorders (Intolerance of Uncertainty – IU and Anxiety Sensitivity – AS). The sample comprised 223 participants. The results suggested that BIS was a significant predictor of all components of the anxiety vulnerability measures. However, Freeze and Flight had also significant contributions, particularly in explaining vulnerabilities to physical and social threats as well as inhibitory behaviours while facing uncertainty. The findings provide insights into the nature of AS and IU which is in accordance with the rRST.     

Impulsivity partially mediates the relationship between BIS/BAS and risky health behaviors

Several theorists have suggested that impulsivity can be understood as a joint function of the behavioral approach (BAS) and behavioral inhibition systems (BIS). After resolving questions concerning the measurement of impulsivity and BAS, this study examined the relationships among risky health behaviors, impulsivity, BIS, and BAS. Utilizing a sample of undergraduates (N = 904), a structural model was tested in which BAS and BIS predicted impulsivity, which, in turn, predicted risky behavior. Fit indices were acceptable, but not good. A modified version of the model showed a statistically significant negative relationship between BAS and risky behaviors. However, the fit indices were not unequivocally supportive of the need to include that path. Overall, the data suggest that impulsivity is the joint result of countervailing motivational forces and that it partially or fully mediates the influence of BIS and BAS on risky health behavior.     

Mapping Gray’s BIS and BAS constructs onto Factor 1 and Factor 2 of Hare’s Psychopathy Checklist – Revised

Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST; Gray, 1987; Gray & McNaughton, 2000) has proven to be a valuable tool for understanding psychopathy (e.g., Fowles, 1980, 1988; Newman & Malterer, 2009; Poythress et al., 2008). Recent research has linked two RST constructs, the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioral Activation System (BAS), to individuals with primary psychopathy and secondary psychopathy (Lykken, 1995; Newman, MacCoon, Vaughn, & Sadeh, 2005): Primary psychopaths manifest low BIS reactivity and secondary psychopaths manifest high BAS reactivity. In the present study, we examine the relationships between the BIS/BAS constructs and Factors 1 and 2 of the Psychopathy Checklist – Revised (PCL-R) in a sample of 472 incarcerated male offenders. Paralleling their relationships with primary and secondary psychopathy, the BIS/BAS constructs were differentially related to the two PCL-R factors. Specifically, the influence of the BIS was found to be more prominent than the influence of the BAS for Factor 1, and the influence of the BAS was more prominent than that of the BIS for Factor 2.     

Carver and Whites’ BIS/FFFS/BAS scales and domains and facets of the Five Factor Model of personality

Few empirical studies have investigated the relationship between Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) and the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality. In a large sample of undergraduates (N = 779), we examined the relationship between FFM domains and facets and the revised RST (see Gray & McNaughton, 2000). Regression and partial correlation analyses indicated that only FFM Agreeableness discriminates between the BIS and FFFS. Other differences at the facet level were found for Neuroticism facets of Self-Consciousness and Angry Hostility (negatively), Agreeableness facets of Compliance and Modesty, and Conscientiousness facets of Self-Discipline and Deliberation. These findings emphasize social inhibition and constraint in the BIS, compared to the FFFS.     

Reinforcement sensitivity theory and major motivational and self-regulatory processes in children

The present research explores the role of sensitivity in the BIS and the BAS as antecedents to cognitive and affective motivational processes in middle-school children. Two studies were initiated to examine the relationship between sensitivity in the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral approach system (BAS) and several important motivational factors. The first study looked at the assumption that the BIS and the BAS are systematically linked to motives and achievement goals. The second study investigated the links between BIS/BAS and individual differences in self-regulatory processes and affect during problem-solving. The findings indicate that the motive to avoid failure, the inability to take action after failure and to initiate intended goal-directed activities, as well as the tendency to focus on avoiding misunderstanding are all grounded in threat responsiveness. Conversely, the motive to approach success, self-efficacy and the tendency to focus on comparison with others in a problem-solving setting are grounded in incentive responsiveness.