Dimensions of Masculinity and Femininity: A Self-Report Inventory

A self-report inventory was designed to assess a wide assortment of traits alleged to be components of masculinity or femininity and traits in which sex differences have been found. Factor analyses of data from men, women, and a combined sample revealed 12 recurring factors. Four of the factors reprint aspects of femininity, and six represent aspects of masculinity. Of the remaining two factors one is a bipolar factor contrasting a feminine quality with a masculine one, and the other represents a trait that can assume tither a masculine or a feminine form. Subsequent factor analyses of data from a shortened questionnaire showed the factors to be reasonably replicable. This research underscores the multidimensionality of masculinity and femininity.     

Masculinity and Femininity: A Bipolar Construct and Independent Constructs

ABSTRACT The present investigation is a reanalysis of data from Antill and Cunningham (1979, 1980, Marsh, Antill, & Cunningham, 1987) consisting of responses to five masculinity-femininity (MF) instruments, two self-esteem instruments, and two social desirability scales Correlations between M and F for the five instruments varied from 23 to approximately - 10, support for distinguishable (nonbipolar) M and F factors was found for four of the instruments Applying confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and hierarchical CFA (HCFA), the present study examined the dimensionality of MF and the influence of method/ halo effects m response to specific instruments The best fitting model identified three higher order factors, in support of traditional personality theories one factor was a bipolar MF construct, but m support of androgyny theory the other two factors were distinguishable M and F factors The factor structures were reasonably invanant for men and women, and methodological implications of this important finding were examined In subsequent analyses, the higher order MF factors were related to self-esteem, social desirability, and gender in order to further test interpretations of the MF factors.     

Masculinity,Femininity, and Multiple Regression: A Reply to Holmbeck

We respond to Holmbeck's (this issue) criticism of our work. Holmbeck is correct to observe that we mislabel the hierarchical regression analyses that we actually performed in Zeldow et al. (1985, 1987) as stepwise regressions. We also reported some correlation coefficients in Zeldow et al. (1985) which were incorrect. However, further speculation by Holmbeck that alternate analyses would "dramatically" alter our results and that we are guilty of various interpretive errors are shown to be wrong. Most of Holmbeck's conclusions about the potential misuses of multiple regression analyses in androgyny research are supported. However, the substantive conclusions of our earlier articles remain unchanged.     

The Relationships Between Codependency and Femininity and Masculinity

Feminist writers critical of the codependency model have argued that codependency refers to an overly strong conformity to the traditional feminine role. Canonical correlation analysis using data from 192 first-year university students found a moderate association between codependency and gender-role identification. The specific nature of this association varied with different aspects of codependency. External focus (approval seeking) was associated with high scores on the negative aspects of femininity and low scores on positive aspects of masculinity. Self-sacrificing was associated with high positive femininity and low negative masculinity. Women scored higher than men on one aspect of codependency: external focus. Although the data are broadly consistent with a feminist critique of codependency, the relationship between codependency and gender-role identification appears to be more complex than previously suggested.     

Sex Differences in Loneliness: The Role of Masculinity and Femininity

The present study assessed the magnitude of sexdifferences in loneliness after accounting for theinfluence of two covariates: masculinity and femininity.The 256 participants (principally White, somewhat affluent, and middle-class university students)completed both the UCLA Loneliness Scale and the Bem SexRole Inventory. Whereas sex differences were originallynonsignificant (males tended to be lonelier than females), this difference was significantafter accounting for masculinity (not femininity)embedded in participants' loneliness scores. Similarresults emerged when the covariates were partialled out of both loneliness (criterion) and sex(predictor). These findings support the hypothesis thatmales appear reluctant to admit feelings of loneliness.Male reluctance to personally admit social deficits such as loneliness is suggested for futureresearch.     

Masculinity,Femininity, and Reported Paranormal Beliefs

Previous research has found that women are more likely than men to report belief in nonmaterial paranormal phenomena (e.g., psychics). There are inconsistent findings about whether men are more likely than women to report belief in material paranormal phenomena (e.g., bigfoot/sasquatch), and no prior survey research has examined gender expression (as masculine or feminine) as it relates to paranormal beliefs. This paper asks: How do gender identity and gender expression relate to reported paranormal beliefs? It answers this question using a large sample (n = 2504) of Canadians. Femininity helps explain differences between cisgender women and men on reported beliefs about foreseeing the future and telekinesis, but less so about reported belief in ghosts. Intriguingly, reported gender atypicality is associated with reported belief in all paranormal phenomena among cisgender women and among cisgender men. The results highlight the importance of measuring gender expression for beliefs that science cannot verify.     

Masculinity,Femininity, and Multiple Regression: Comment on Zeldow,Daugherty, and Clark's "Masculinity,Femininity, and Psychosocial Adjustment in Medical Students: A 2-Year Follow-Up"

Inappropriate applications and interpretations of multiple regression analyses by Zeldow and his associates (Zeldow, Clark, & Daugherty, 1985; Zeldow, Daugherty, & Clark, 1987) are discussed as are several general interpretive and statistical issue. To perform and interpret multiple regressors, several characteristics of this statistical approach must be taken into account. Of critical importance is the order in which variables are entered, the choice of regression approaches, the direction of an effect upon entering the model, and the manner in which the interpretation of interaction effects varies as a function of the presence or absence of main effects. Because Zeldow et al. (1985, 1987) did not consider these factors, their regression analyses were not run as stated and are difficult to interpret. Five hypothetical outcomes in androgyny research and an example involving actual data are presented.     

An Examination of Sex and Masculinity/Femininity as Related to the Taste Sensitivity of Japanese Students

The purpose of the present study was to examine the influences of gender differences and masculinity–femininity on taste thresholds and food preferences. The participants were 108 Japanese undergraduate students (44 men and 64 women); their mean age was 19.6 years (SD = 1.3). Their detection and recognition thresholds for caffeine and sucrose were measured. Multiple regression analyses showed that women tended to have a lower detection threshold for caffeine than men did. The recognition threshold for caffeine was positively associated with scores for masculinity. For men, masculinity may be associated with smoking and drinking behavior, thereby resulting in a lower sensitivity for bitterness. Masculinity and femininity related to food preferences are also discussed.     

Femininity and Masculinity in City-Form: Philosophical Urbanism as a History of Consciousness

Mutual feedback between human-made environments and facets of thought throughout history has yielded two myths: the Garden and the Citadel. Both myths correspond to Jung’s feminine and masculine collective subconscious, as well as to Nietzsche’s premise of Apollonian and Dionysian impulses in art. Nietzsche’s premise suggests, furthermore, that the feminine myth of the Garden is time-bound whereas the masculine myth of the Citadel, or the Ideal City, constitutes a spatial deportment. Throughout history the two myths have continually molded the built environment and thought, but the myth of the Ideal City – from Plato to Descartes to modernity – came to dominate city-form and ensuing aspects of contemplation. This relationship seems to have shifted during the twentieth century. Intellectual dispositions have begun to be largely nurtured by an incongruous city-form emerging from the gap between the incessant promise for an automated, well-functioning city, on the one hand, and looming alienation, coupled with the factual, malfunctioning city, on the other hand. Urban decay, a persisting and time-bound urban event that is a byproduct of this configuration, suggests the ascent of the Garden myth in post-modern city-form.     

Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny: Relations to Self-Esteem and Social Desirability

ABSTRACT The present investigation is a reanalysis of data from Antill and Cunningham (1979,1980) consisting of responses to five Masculinity-Femininity (MF) instruments, two self-esteem instruments, and two social desirability instruments The present study examined recently developed models of the MF/ esteem relation and the influence of social desirability on this relation The unique contribution of Masculinity (M) to esteem was consistently more positive than that of Femininity (F) which was either ml or negative, did not vary with sex as posited by sex-typed models, and did not interact with F as posited by interactive androgyny models Partialing out the effects of social desirability failed to alter the general pattern of results In contrast to esteem, social desirability was more correlated with F than M, and these findings were consistent with the observation that esteem items may reflect stereotypically masculine characteristics whereas social desirability items reflect stereotypically feminine characteristics The findings of the present study, and those of previous research, were examined in relation to important methodological issues that have been largely ignored by previous research in this area     

The Measurement of Masculinity and Femininity: Historical Perspective and Implications for Counseling

Masculinity and femininity are both psychological and sociocultural constructs that test developers have attempted to assess for many years. The author examines the history of the measurement of masculinity and femininity from the 1920s through 2000, addresses relevant theory, and considers criticisms of masculinity and femininity measurement as well as the challenges of responding to them. Implications of the use of such measures by counselors, researchers, and counselor educators are discussed.     

A comparison of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and the Heilbrun Masculinity and Femininity Scales

This study compares two instruments which have recently been devised to measure sex-role identification, Heilbrun's Masculinity and Femininity Scales and the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Correlations between the masculine and feminine scales of these instruments were significant for male but not female subjects; intrascale comparisons found no relationship between the Bem scales but moderate correlations between the Heilbrun scales for male subjects. There was agreement between the two measures in classifying approximately 47% of the subjects into one of the four sex-role categories. Misclassification occurred primarily on categories which have been found to show considerable overlap in personality characteristics.     

Masculinity, Femininity, and Marital Satisfaction: An Examination of Theoretical Models

ABSTRACT This study sought to investigate the relationship between masculinity, femininity, and marital satisfaction. A number of polynomial multiple regression analyses were performed in an effort to determine the validity of six theoretical models linking sex roles to marital satisfaction. These are the femininity model, masculinity model, sex-typed model, additive androgynous model, interactive androgynous model, and curvilinear model. The sample was composed of 117 couples who completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (Bem, 1974) and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976). For men, the results showed that marital satisfaction was related to (a) their self-described levels of femininity and masculinity, (b) the level of self-described femininity of their wives, and (c) the presence of feminine qualities as well as a limited optimal level of masculine qualities which they perceived in their wives. For women, marital satisfaction was associated with (a) the number of self-described feminine qualities and (b) the level of masculinity, as well as an optimal level of femininity, which they perceived in their husbands. Further-more, small actual-ideal discrepancies in levels of masculinity and femininity ascribed to partners constituted reliable predictors of marital satisfaction for both men and women.     

Masculinity,Femininity, and Hispanic Professional Women's Self-Esteem and Self-Acceptance

The literature suggests that whereas women experience unique challenges with self-esteem, Hispanic professional women experience an additional challenge of balancing majority culture values with a more family-oriented ethnic identity. This study investigated differences in self-esteem, self-acceptance, masculinity, femininity, and locus of control among Hispanic professional women, non-Hispanic professionals, scientists, college students, clients, and victims of domestic violence. Masculinity scores were significantly higher for Hispanic professional women, and self-acceptance scores were significantly lower than for other women professionals.     

The Effects of Same-Sex and Other-Sex Contexts on Masculinity and Femininity

The study addressed whether or not masculinity and femininity as indexed by state measures of gender-typed behaviors changed when participants worked with asame-sex or other-sex peer. In a within-subjects design, 80 college students (40 women and 40 men, M age = 19.5 years, SD = 2.10) worked with a man and a woman confederate on a collaborative task. State masculinity and femininity measures were created from existing trait measures (Bem, 1974; Boldizar, 1991). Men and women reported greater state femininity when working with an other-sex partner than when working with a same-sex partner. State masculinity did not vary as a function of same-sex and other-sex contexts. Implications of these findings for understanding how social interactions contribute to the construction of masculinity and femininity are discussed.