Educational level, socioeconomic status and aphasia research: a comment on Connor et al. (2001)--effect of socioeconomic status on aphasia severity and recovery

Is there a relation between socioeconomic factors and aphasia severity and recovery? describe correlations between the educational level and socioeconomic status of aphasic subjects with aphasia severity and subsequent recovery. As stated in the introduction by, studies of the influence of educational level and literacy (or illiteracy) on aphasia severity have yielded conflicting results, while no significant link between socioeconomic status and aphasia severity and recovery has been established. In this brief note, we will comment on their findings and conclusions, beginning first with a brief review of literacy and aphasia research, and complexities encountered in these fields of investigation. This serves as a general background to our specific comments on, which will be focusing on methodological issues and the importance of taking normative values in consideration when subjects with different socio-cultural or socio-economic backgrounds are assessed.     

Intelligence as a predictor of social mobility in Estonia

The purpose of this study was to explore how individual and environmental predictors of intergenerational social mobility intersect in rarely studied post‐communist developing society of Estonia. We used a contemporary cross‐sectional dataset (n = 759) to assess the influence of cognitive ability and parental socioeconomic status to the participants’ educational and occupational attainment. Our results indicated that cognitive ability and one's own educational level mediated the association of parental socioeconomic status with one's own occupational success. Analysis of separate components of cognitive ability indicated that verbal ability had the highest influence on occupational status. We concluded that both individual‐level and environmental factors have a predictive effect on educational and occupational attainment.     

家庭社会经济地位与青少年未来规划的关系:外向性的调节作用及其性别差异

以山东省济南市、莱州市的935名初二和高一学生为被试, 进行为期一年半的追踪研究, 考察了家庭社会经济地位与青少年的教育规划和职业规划之间的关系, 检验了外向性在其中的调节作用及其性别差异。结果表明:(1)家庭社会经济地位能够显著正向地预测青少年T1和T2时的教育规划以及T1时的职业规划;(2)外向性水平越高, 青少年教育规划和职业规划水平越高, 但是这种预测作用不存在长期性;(3)外向性能够调节家庭社会经济地位与青少年教育规划之间关系, 且这种调节作用存在显著的性别差异;但在家庭社会经济地位与青少年职业规划之间不存调节作用。这表明, 外向性不仅能够直接保护青少年的未来规划, 而且能够抵抗低家庭社会经济地位对个体未来规划的不良影响, 但是这种压力抵抗效应在不同性别、不同未来规划的领域之中存在差异。     

Home environment and cognitive development of black infants in impoverished South African families

This study examined the interrelationships between home environment, mental and psychomotor development, growth, and educational and occupational indices of socioeconomic status among an urban sample of 305 African infants aged 2 to 30 months. The infants were assessed on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development and the Home Screening Questionnaire, and their heights and weights were recorded. Information regarding the family's socioeconomic status was obtained during interviews with caretakers. No significant relationships were found between parental education and occupation and infant cognitive development, but quality of the home environment was positively correlated with these indices of parental socioeconomic status. On the other hand, home environment scores were found to be significantly related to mental development, independent of parental education and occupation. There was considerable variation in home environments in the sample, which was drawn from generally impoverished urban communities. These findings from an African cultural group support the generalizability of the importance of the quality of the home environment for infant development.     

Relation of socioeconomic status to logical and sociomoral judgment of middle-aged men

Empirical links between socioeconomic status and logical and sociomoral judgment were studied. Logical judgment was measured with adaptations of the pendulum and correlations tasks devised by Inhelder and Piaget (1958); sociomoral judgment was scored with the standard Kohlberg interview. Measures of socioeconomic status (SES) were status of family of origin and subject's educational attainment and occupational prestige. In a sample of 83 middle-aged men, the 3 measures of SES accounted for 25% and 12% of the variance in logical and sociomoral judgment, respectively. Adult occupational prestige accounted for 6% of the variance in logical judgment beyond that explained by family status and education, suggesting that adult cognitive functioning may be related to occupational placement, occupational experience, or both.     

A developmental model for the occupational socioeconomic status of American men

Prior research suggested that psychological, sociological and economic variables, measuring both differential and developmental dimensions, must be considered for an exhaustive analysis of adult vocational status. From the resulting estimated predictive model, occupational socioeconomic status was examined through 16 selected family, ecological, educational, ethnoreligious, and political predictor variables. The data were obtained from a national sample of 1355 American men. Factor analysis supported the hypothesized existence of an educational-socioeconomic factor and a political identification factor, plus a less discrete religiousity factor. Path analysis confirmed that a respondent's education, adult social class, and father's occupational socioeconomic status were principle predictors of the respondent's occupational socioeconomic status.     

Adolescents' occupational and educational goals: A test of reciprocal relations

During adolescence, young people's future aspirations and expectations begin to crystallize, especially in the domains of education and occupation. Much of the research in this area has emphasized development within a particular domain (e.g., education) and relations between aspirations and expectations across domains remain largely unexplored, resulting in a lack of information on how goals develop in tandem and affect each other. It is also unclear whether these developmental processes differ by gender and socioeconomic status. We tested reciprocal effects between occupational and educational goals using a longitudinal sample of 636 adolescents (52% boys). Results from dynamic systems models indicated change in occupational and educational goals across high school. For all youth, occupational aspirations predicted change in occupational expectations. Educational expectations predicted change in occupational aspirations for youth in high but not low parent education groups, and occupational expectations predicted change in educational expectations for girls but not boys.     

Differences Between Adolescents Who Seek Counseling and Those Who Do Not

It was hypothesized that students who seek counseling for occupational and educational planning would differ from those who do not seek counseling in terms of socioeconomic background, certain personality variables, vocational development, and relations with parents. A battery of tests and a questionnaire were given to 245 male students from McDowell County, West Virginia. Of this group, 93 had received counseling (designated as group C) and 152 had not received counseling (designated as group NC). Group C showed a higher socioeconomic background, more n Achievement, and more certainty in vocational planning. The two groups did not differ significantly in occupational aspiration, perception of occupational prestige, self-esteem, fear of failure, relations with parents, and certainty in educational planning.     

Career aspirations of youth: Untangling race/ethnicity, SES, and gender

This study examined the influence of gender, socioeconomic status, and race/ethnicity on the career aspirations of over 22,000 8th and 10th grade youth. The top five occupations identified by youth as aspirations included artist, lawyer, musician, FBI agent, and actor/actress. Top occupations were also reported for each gender × socioeconomic status × race/ethnicity group. Aspirations were coded by social prestige level, minimum education requirements, and median salary. Results revealed significant main effects for socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity as well as significant interaction effects. Further, significant gender main effects and a significant gender × ethnicity interaction were found for occupational prestige and educational requirements.     

Socioeconomic Adaptation of Post-1991 Eastern European Immigrants in the USA

Very little is known about new Eastern European immigrants in the USA, despite the rapid growth of this immigrant population. In particular, their socioeconomic adaptation to American life has not been systematically studied. Extending previous research on post-1965 immigration to the USA, this study examines the socioeconomic adaptation of post-1991 Eastern European immigrants by focusing on their educational attainment, occupational status, and income. We test our hypotheses using data from the pooled 2006–2010 American Community Surveys and ordinary least squares regression and logistic regression. The results show that new Eastern European immigrants tend to be highly educated and professional, but their income is surprisingly low. The results of regression models indicate that the individual characteristics of immigrants largely explain their socioeconomic adaptation. In addition, such conditions in the countries of origin as gross domestic product and political and personal freedom also influence their socioeconomic performance to some extent. The implications of findings are discussed.     

The association between low socioeconomic status and depressive symptoms depends on temperament and personality traits

Socioeconomic status and personality traits are known to be associated with depression risk. We examined whether temperament and personality traits modified the association between socioeconomic status and depressive symptoms. The participants were 2678 individuals from the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns study, aged 18-49 during the three study waves in 1997, 2001, and 2007 included in the present study. Temperament was assessed with the Temperament and Character Inventory, personality with the Five Factor Model, and depressive symptoms with a modified version of Beck’s Depression Inventory. Education, occupational status, and income level were used as indicators of socioeconomic status. Results of multilevel linear regression analysis indicated that low occupational status and income were associated with high depressive symptoms particularly in individuals with high neuroticism or harm avoidance, and with low extraversion or reward dependence. High persistence also strengthened the negative association between income and depressive symptoms, but this interaction effect was not observed with conscientiousness. The mental health risks of low socioeconomic status may therefore be most potent among individuals who are sensitive to negative and threatening stimuli.     

Mental Disorders and Socioeconomic Status: Impact on Population Risk of Attempted Suicide in Australia

The population attributable risk (PAR) of mental disorders compared to indicators of socioeconomic status (SES) for attempted suicide was estimated for Australia. For mental disorders, the highest PAR% for attempted suicide was for anxiety disorders (males 28%; females 36%). For SES, the highest PAR% for attempted suicide in males was for occupation (males 31%; females 16%) and education level (males 19%; females 8%), following adjustment for age and mental disorders. The study results suggest that one third of suicide attempts in both males and females are attributable to anxiety disorders, the same proportion attributable to low educational or occupational status.     

Epidemiological investigation of mental disorders of children in Reykjavík, Iceland

Abstract.— A representative sample of 1100 children aged 5–15 years in Reykjavík was investigated with the WISC test, the Rorschach test, and an extensive semistructured interview with the mothers. The purpose of the investigation was to estimate the frequency of mental disorders in the population of children in Reykjavík, and their socioeconomic and educational correlates. The percentage of severely disordered children for the different mental health variables ranged from 11.8% to 30.8%. No significant differences were found as to age and sex. Most clearly associated with mental health were the parents' educational level, occupational status of father, the maternal attitudes of warmth and emotional involvment and the child's IQ and school achievement.     

Father identification,achievement, and occupational behavior of rural youth: 10-year follow-up

Males from rural economically deprived school districts, who had previously been surveyed as high school seniors, again 1 year after graduation, and again 5 years after graduation, were surveyed a fourth and final time 10 years after high school graduation concerning their occupational status and aspirations, their marital status, their spouses' educational and occupational achievements, the importance of life roles, and their occupational and personal satisfactions. In the original study the participants had been divided into two groups, low-identification males (LIM) and high-identification males (HIM) based on independent evaluators' judgments of the adequacy of their fathers as identification models. Each group's responses to the survey were compared. The results indicate that there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups on the variables of optimism about the future, spouses' occupational achievements, role importance, occupational satisfaction, and personal satisfaction. There were statistically significant differences on the variables of occupational status, occupational aspirations, educational achievements, educational plans, marital status, and spouses' educational achievements. The results are discussed in the context of the three previous surveys. Over the 10-year period the occupational and educational achievements and aspirations have been significantly higher for the HIM group than for the LIM group. Equally consistent is the finding that over the 10-year period there has been no differences between the two groups in satisfaction with status.     

SOCIAL CLASS PERCEPTION AND SOCIAL STATUS AMONG SWEDISH YOUTH

Social class perception (identification) was studied as a function of ‘objective’ status (socioeconomic level) and class (occupational class) using a sample of Swedish high school students. Confirming the two minor hypotheses, the results disclosed that class perception was affected by both the ‘objective’ class and status of the subject: the manual occupational class, and those with low socioeconomic status, had in general a higher proportion of working-class identification than the nonmanual class, and those with low socioeconomic status, respectively. However, the major hypothesis, an interaction hypothesis stating that manuals are not affected by status in their class perceptions, was not confirmed. The results are discussed in the context of social psychological theory and earlier empirical research.     

FACTORS INFLUENCING CANADIAN HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS' CAREER MOTIVATION

The need to prepare adolescent girls for the reality of labor market participation prompted this study investigating the factors influencing female career motivation. Questionnaires were completed by 317 female students from grades 8, 10, and 12. Four criterion variables were used to assess overall career motivation: career commitment, occupational aspirations, educational aspirations, and vocational certainty. The relation–ship between the criterion measures and a set of predictor variables (socioeconomic status, school marks, grade level, masculine/feminine trait dimensions, attitudes toward women, and marriage/family commitment) was explored. A canonical correlation analysis, used to test the relationship between the predictor and criterion variables, revealed two significant sets of relationships. First, girls who obtained higher marks in school, identified with either masculine or androgynous trait dispositions, had more liberal attitudes toward women, and were from higher socioeconomic backgrounds aspired to higher levels of education, were more highly committed to a career, and aspired to more highly prestigious occupations. The second relationship showed that older girls from a lower socioeconomic background with high commitment to marriage and a family have high career commitment and certainty about their careers, yet lower educational and occupational aspirations. The study highlights the importance of (a) examining career and family commitment independently, (b) studying the impact of psychological variables on career motivation, and (c) combining a number of factors to represent career motivation.     

Getting Ahead: Educational and Occupational Trajectories of the ‘New’ Second-Generation in Switzerland

This paper examines the educational and occupational trajectories among second-generation immigrants of Turkish and Western-Balkan origin in Switzerland. Using a representative sample of 1107 respondents in two Swiss urban areas, the findings reveal that descendants of immigrants have reduced chances to follow a constant successful path from education to occupation, which is mainly determined by parental socioeconomic status. However, young adults of Turkish and Western Balkan origin are significantly more often upward mobile than the majority group, a pattern that is robust against a range of controls. We find parental monitoring and family cohesion to be positively related with upward mobility. Moreover, second-generation immigrants are more likely to be upwardly mobile than starting high in the education system but subsequently moving downwards—a profile that is more frequent among Swiss origin youth. Our multivariate results indicate that a lack of intense parent–child communication and perceived discrimination in school are affecting this downward process.     

Effects of disability and bereavement on the mental health and recovery of older adults

We investigated the role of two major stressors, recent disability and conjugal bereavement, in older adults' self-reports of mental health and recovery from stress. A sample of 246 older adults between the ages of 60-80 was interviewed monthly for 3 months by trained elderly interviewers; Month-10 interview data were also analyzed. Control subjects, who were not experiencing the stressors, were carefully selected from a sample of adults matched on age, sex, and socioeconomic status. Dependent variables were psychological distress and psychological well-being, each with component subscales. The disabled group evidenced significantly lower positive well-being and significantly greater distress than did the other groups. Bereaved subjects demonstrated high levels of depression compared with the disabled subjects, but showed less anxiety. Bereaved subjects showed recovery on several indicators of mental health, but disabled subjects continued to show considerable psychological upset in comparison with the other groups.     

Sex differences in the determination of adolescent aspirations: A review of research

This article reviews research on sex differences in the educational and occupational orientations of adolescents. Because the aspirations and expectations of adolescents are predictive of subsequent adult attainment, these variables are important mediating factors in the process by which individuals of the two sexes come to occupy different educational and occupational positions in adulthood. Adolescent boys aspire to a higher level of education than girls, and the occupational choices of the two sexes are highly sex-stereotyped. Factors influencing levels of adolescent aspiration are reviewed, including socioeconomic background, academic ability, number of siblings, parental encouragement, mother's employment, academic performance, peer aspirations, dating, and participation in school activities. Although sex differences exist in the process by which both educational and occupational aspirations are formed, they are greater with respect to occupational than educational aspirations.     

Quantitative CT scan studies in aphasia. I. Infarct size and CT numbers

Infarct si?e (number of 1-mm² pixels in the lesion) on CT scans of 30 aphasia patients was obtained with a semiautomated computer program. The mean number of lesion pixels present per slice containing lesion was approximately 500 for mild aphasias (transcortical motor and conduction), 700 for Wernicke's, 1000 for Broca's, 1500 for mixed, and 2000 for globals. These differences were significant for $\text{11}\text{15}$ of the group pairwise comparisons. When lesion locus was controlled for in the anterior/posterior plane, 73–100% of the aphasia patients were correctly classified as to type of aphasia by a discriminant analysis utilizing only the number of lesion pixels present on two CT slices. Different slice combinations were used for different aphasia group comparisons. There was a significant correlation between severity of aphasia and lesion size. There was a significant correlation between lesion size and the CT numbers in the lesion. This type of analysis may be useful to predict the prognosis for recovery potential in aphasics who have CT scans performed at 2 months poststroke.