The Pedagogy of the Online Wisdom Community: Forming Church Ministers in a Digital Age

Abstract. While electronic learning is transforming the face of higher education today, some in the theological community question whether it is appropriate for the specific goals of graduate level theological formation for ministry. Drawing on the work of one theological faculty, this article answers yes. The author describes the school's hybrid model of distance education pedagogy. He discusses the underlying teaching and learning principles that guided the faculty in their development of this model, and, in particular, the pedagogical ideal of the learning cohort as a “wisdom community.” Web‐based instruction can be effectively designed to nurture wisdom communities for integrative learning. The author describes the “pedagogy of the online wisdom community” from his experience of Web‐based distance education teaching. The growing demand for ministry formation programs, particularly in mission areas, underlines the urgent need for continued study of the role of technology in theological pedagogy.     

Thwarted Belongingness in Relation to Face‐to‐Face and Online Interactions

Suicide is ranked as the tenth leading cause of death for all ages in the United States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). Joiner's (2005) interpersonal theory of suicide stated thwarted belongingness—the feeling of being alienated from others—and perceived burdensomeness—the feeling of being a liability to others—are the primary proximal factors leading to suicidal desire. The current study focused on thwarted belongingness and examined its relationship to face‐to‐face interactions and online interactions in both an undergraduate and community sample. We hypothesized that negative face‐to‐face and online interactions would be independently associated with higher levels of thwarted belongingness. Furthermore, we hypothesized that face‐to‐face interactions would moderate the relationship between online interactions and thwarted belongingness and that online interactions would moderate the relationship between face‐to‐face interactions and thwarted belongingness. Three hundred eighty‐seven participants (79.6% female) at a southern university and 209 (62.7% male) participants recruited from Amazon's Mechanical Turk website completed an online survey. Results only partially supported hypotheses, with only face‐to‐face interactions shown to be independently related to higher levels of thwarted belongingness. These findings indicated that negative face‐to‐face interactions may contribute to higher levels of risk factors for suicide ideation and highlighted the importance of assessing for negative interactions across all contexts.     

Newborns learn to identify a face in eight/tenths of a second?

A number of recent studies have shown that newborns prefer to look at mother's face rather than at the face of a stranger. This preference can be seen as the result of familiarity with the mother's face, stemming from a greater number of encounters with mother's face. A schema theory can deal with this kind of recognition. Recent work with verbal stimuli has shown that newborns are sensitive to primacy and recency as well as simple familiarity. A pilot and one complete experiment were carried out to examine whether primacy and recency operated with faces as well. Results indicated that primacy, but not recency, was effective. The results show very rapid learning, learning that may outpace the capacity of any extant model of perceptual learning.     

Sexual Orientation and Developmental Challenges Experienced by Gay and Lesbian Youths

Youths with a homosexual orientation face different developmental challenges during adolescence than those faced by heterosexual youths or individuals who recognize their homosexual orientation later in life. We discuss the impact of “coming out,” or defining a homosexual orientation, on the development and identity formation of youths who come out during adolescence. The process of coming out is presented as entailing four broad dimensions: recognizing oneself as lesbian or gay; exploring one's sexual orientation through the gay and lesbian community; disclosing one's sexual orientation to others; and becoming more comfortable with one's sexual orientation. Some of the major challenges faced by these youths are described, and future directions for research efforts are discussed.     

Thirty years of research on online learning

This paper presents a personal account of developments in research on online learning over the past 30 years. Research on how to design online instruction represents an example of applying the science of learning to education. It contributes to the science of learning (as exemplified by developments in cognitive load theory, the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, and incorporating metacognitive, motivational, and affective aspects of learning), the science of instruction (as exemplified by the continuing development of research‐based principles of instructional design), and the science of assessment (as exemplified by supplementing self‐report surveys and retention tests with multilevel transfer tests, log file data during learning, and cognitive neuroscience measures of cognitive processing during learning). Some recurring themes are that learning is caused by instructional methods rather than instructional media, so research should focus on features that are uniquely afforded by digital learning environments; instructional practice should be grounded in rigorous and systematic research, including value‐added experiments aimed at pinpointing the active ingredients in online instruction; research in online learning should identify boundary conditions under which instructional techniques are most effective; and research in online learning should test and contribute to learning theory.     

The role of the mother's voice in developing mother's face preference: Evidence for intermodal perception at birth

Four experiments are described which investigated the role of the mother's voice in facilitating recognition of the mother's face at birth. Experiment 1 replicated our previous findings (Br. J. Dev. Psychol. 1989; 7: 3–15; The origins of human face perception by very young infants. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK, 1990) indicating a preference for the mother's face when a control for the mother's voice and odours was used only during the testing. A second experiment adopted the same procedures, but controlled for the mother's voice from birth through testing. The neonates were at no time exposed to their mother's voice. Under these conditions, no preference was found. Further, neonates showed only few head turns towards both the mother and the stranger during the testing. Experiment 3 looked at the number of head turns under conditions where the newborn infants were exposed to both the mother's voice and face from birth to 5 to 15 min prior to testing. Again, a strong preference for the mother's face was demonstrated. Such preference, however, vanished in Experiment 4, when neonates had no previous exposure to the mother's voice–face combination. The conclusion drawn is that a prior experience with both the mother's voice and face is necessary for the development of face recognition, and that intermodal perception is evident at birth. The neonates' ability to recognize the face of the mother is most likely to be rooted in prenatal learning of the mother's voice. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Teaching Religion Religiously: A Dialogue

Two theologians teaching religion at the same college engage in a dialogue about differences in their understandings of teaching religion in order to explore serious pedagogical and theological issues. Their reflections on their teaching touch on issues of learning goals, institutional identity, student freedom, faculty self‐revelation, and the liberal arts that most teachers of religion face. Along the way, they explore the relation of pedagogy to theological topics like grace and ecclesiology. We invite readers to join the conversation begun in this article by engaging Webb, Placher, and one another through the public discussion list we've created for this article on the Wabash Center Discussion Forum at http://ntweb.wabash.edu/wcdiscus/.     

Human constructivism: A unification of psychological and epistemological phenomena in meaning making

Ausubel's (1963, 1968, 1978) assimilation theory of learning is used to describe the process by which humans engage in meaningful learning. High levels of meaningful learning are characterized as underlying the process of new knowledge construction. Concept maps and Vee diagrams are employed to illustrate aspects of assimilation theory, foundational constructivist epistemological ideas, and tools that can facilitate meaningful learning and knowledge construction. The central thesis is that the process of meaningful learning, as understood through assimilation theory, is fundamental to both the psychological process of cognitive development of individuals and the epistemological process of new knowledge construction.     

Mental Health Research in K–12 Schools: Translating a Systems Approach to University–School Partnerships

The authors discuss the challenges that researchers from university and community systems face in gaining access to and partnering with K–12 school systems to conduct research. Borrowing from Szapocznik, Hervis, and Schwartz's (2003) brief strategic family theory and therapy and Bronfenbrenner's (1979, 1986) ecological systems theory, the authors outline a model for diverse research communities in the United States that can be used by counselors and other mental health services researchers who plan to conduct research in K–12 schools.     

Online lifestyle consumption community dynamics: A practice‐based analysis

The purposes of this study were to identify and categorize the discursive practices through which consumers negotiate a lifestyle‐related identity in online lifestyle consumption communities. The empirical case is a very active community of consumers who adhere to the low‐carb/high‐fat diet. The paper contributes to communal consumption literature by showing how a lifestyle identity and the community evolve together. Focusing on an online community with lifestyle focus differentiates this study from previous research because nutritional choices influence the consumers' everyday life in a comprehensive manner. By employing a netnographic analysis on discussion board messages, 11 discursive practices are identified. These practices are categorized according to confirming/challenging and self‐directed/community‐directed dimensions. The paper provides a typology of online community dynamics, emphasizing the importance of challenging practices for community development. It also has important implications for companies who wish to understand food lifestyles and develop online platforms for their customers. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How Do Students Learn Theology?

This paper explores the way students learn theology through a small qualitative research project. It is undertaken in conversation with current higher education learning theory. This learning theory suggests that it is important to discover how a student conceptualizes learning and how they perceive the teaching environment. Students interviewed increasingly spoke of the value of this academic or more cognitive side of learning as they learned “deep approaches.” Important in this movement to deep, transformational learning was the presence of a relational teaching environment in which peers and teachers played a crucial role. This present study offers support to the view that the tradition of the learning community remains important for deploying deep approaches to the learning of theology in higher education. The paper argues that these relational principals of teaching and learning remain important in the face of the increased use of technology‐based tools and other pedagogical challenges to theological education today.     

An Analysis of Schema Theory and Learning Theory as Explanations for Variance in Adolescent Adjustment to Divorce

Learning theory and schema theory were evaluated as possible explanations for the variance found in the adjustment of adolescent children of divorce. Self-report questionnaires were completed by first year Psychology and Economics students at Stellenbosch University. Participants completed Antonovsky's Life Orientation Questionnaire (measuring adjustment); Hudson's CAM and CAF questionnaires (measuring relationships with mother and father, respectively); and a set of questions measuring attitude to divorce; as well as a biographical questionnaire. Schema theory was not supported conclusively, as results showed only limited evidence for attitude to divorce acting as a mediator between the parent-child relationship and the child's adjustment. Results did, however, support learning theory as an adequate explanation for the positive correlations found between parent-adolescent relationships and adolescent adjustment. Knowledge of the importance of learning theory in explaining variance in adolescent adjustment to divorce can increase parents' awareness of their influence on their children's adjustment. This can also be used in the design of therapeutic programs for families going through divorce.     

Synchronous online CPD: empirical support for the value of webinars in career settings

The careers profession in England is facing unprecedented challenges. Initiatives to improve service delivery while keeping costs low are attractive and online training holds the promise of high impact at low cost. The present study employs a qualitative methodology to evaluate a series of online ‘webinars’ conducted with 15 careers advisers. Results showed that the technology itself could impede learning, and participants missed out on the peer-to-peer interaction that takes place in a ‘bricks and mortar’ setting, but overall participants found that access to relevant, good quality training from the convenience of their workplace more than compensated for the challenges. The article offers conceptual support for the viability of online learning through the theory of equivalency, andragogy and transactional distance theory, and makes recommendations for practice.     

Predicting performance on the Raven's Matrices: The roles of associative learning and retrieval efficiency

Previous studies have shown that performance on Williams and Pearlberg's (2006) complex associative learning task is a good predictor of fluid intelligence. This task is similar in structure to that used in studying the fan effect (Anderson, 1974), as both tasks involve forming multiple associations and require retrieval in the face of interference. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relations among complex associative learning, working memory, and fluid intelligence. Specifically, we asked whether retrieval efficiency, as measured by the fan effect, could account for the relation between complex associative learning and performance on Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices. Consistent with previous findings, complex associative learning predicted Raven's performance, but the fan effect did not account for this relation. Notably, the learning phase of the fan effect task was significantly correlated with both complex associative learning and Raven's performance, providing further support for the importance of learning as a predictor of fluid intelligence.     

Making Sense in and of the Asexual Community: Navigating Relationships and Identities in a Context of Resistance

Despite some increased visibility in recent years, the asexual community and asexuality generally remain largely unknown. Aiming to demystify asexuality, this paper discusses the context of anti‐asexual animosity in which the (largely American) asexual community is situated. Specifically, the asexual community constructed itself in response to hostility, including explicit anti‐asexual discrimination, homophobia against asexual people perceived to be lesbian or gay, and the negative impact of (implicit) pathologising low sexual desire. This theoretical paper outlines some of the unique challenges asexual people face negotiating identities and relationships; the collective sense‐making strategies they use (generating language and discourse) to do so; and why these things are central to understanding asexual people's experiences. This is accomplished through a purposeful review of literature and a case study of the Asexual Visibility and Education Network as an asexual community space. Understanding the challenges asexual people face and the resources they invoke to overcome them helps applied psychologists develop the cultural competence they need to work effectively with the asexual people they will encounter. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Retreats for intramental thinking in collaborative online learning

Much online learning nowadays depends upon the creation of a generic, quality online educational experience, with a particular emphasis on collaborative conversations. In this discursive piece, drawing upon published scholarship and our facilitation and evaluation of learning in technology-mediated environments, we propose an enrichment to the pedagogy of such approaches, referred to as learner retreats. Such metaphorical spaces recognise the need for a ‘quiet, safe place’ for the private (internal) reflective thinking of each learner, as a foil to the shared collaborative dialogues in the external world of the online community. This ‘headspace’, with a specific focus on private thinking, is where community learners may probe and enhance current group thinking through reflection and self-regulatory activities. Guidelines are provided for tutors wishing to optimise the use and impact of such personal retreats, promoting deep individual learning and development within the educational experience of online learning communities.