Gender Differences in a Comparison of Two Tested Etiological Models of Cigarette Smoking Among Elementary School Students1

The theory of reasoned action (TRA), theory of planned behavior (TPB), and a revised TPB were evaluated using manifest variable structural equation modeling among 4^th‐ through 6^th‐grade students for effectiveness in predicting lifetime cigarette use. TRA was an adequate model for female students, but not male students. TPB resulted in improved model fit over TRA for both male and female students, and a revised TPB model improved fit marginally among female students. Tests for differences across gender indicated that the relationship between intention to use and lifetime cigarette use was stronger among female compared to male students. The results indicate that the TPB is an effective model for predicting lifetime cigarette use among late elementary‐school‐aged children.     

Problem Drinking: A Problem for the Theory of Reasoned Action?1

The present study examined the sufficiency of the theory of reasoned action (TRA) to predict intention and behavior with respect to problem drinking, as well as the ability of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to predict intention and behavior over and above the TRA. The role of perceived control in the TPB was also examined. A 12-year longitudinal study on alcohol and drug use attitudes and behavior provided the context for this investigation. Two criterion variables were examined: intention to get drunk and frequency of getting drunk. It was hypothesized that heavier drinkers would perceive less control over their drinking. Coincidentally, the TRA, which assumes the behavior being predicted is volitional, would become less predictive as drinking became heavier. Furthermore, the TPB, which extends the TRA to include perceived (volitional) control over the behavior would be more predictive of intention and behavior than the TRA. All three hypotheses were supported. In addition, perceived control proved to be differentially predictive for nonproblem and problem drinkers. Specifically, perceived control contributed to the prediction of intention to get drunk for nonproblem drinkers, but to the prediction of behavior (frequency of getting drunk) for problem drinkers. Implications of these results for theory development and application are discussed.     

Predicting Intention to Save Water: Theory of Planned Behavior,Response Efficacy,Vulnerability, and Perceived Efficiency of Alternative Solutions1

These 2 studies attempted to predict people's intention to save water. Study 1 used a model based on Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behavior (TPB) and other variables: vulnerability, 2 collective efficacy variables, and subjective effectiveness of alternative solutions (SEAS) to ease drought impact. Study 2 tested a model similar to that of Study 1, but with 2 personal efficacy variables added. Respondents in both studies were residents of Taiwan (Ns= 166 and 210). Analysis indicated that the modified models (R²>.32) were better than the TPB model (R²<.19), and SEAS and response efficacy had crucial effects on people's intentions to retrofit. The studies also found some significant but inconsistent effects of income, dwelling, and education.     

Organ donation intentions and behaviors: application and extension of the theory of planned behavior

Organ donation intentions and behaviors were investigated using a traditional and extended theory of planned behavior (TPB). In study 1, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control were associated with intentions to engage in donation behaviors in a student sample (all p ≤ .02), and intentions significantly predicted behavior 2 months later (p < .001). Study 2 utilized a community sample of Catholic, Jewish, and Muslim individuals. Measures of affect and religious attitudes were added to the traditional TPB, increasing the variance in intentions accounted for by the model, F(7, 181) = 6.94, p < .001. The studies support the use of an extended TPB in predicting donation‐related intentions and behaviors and suggest potential targets of interventions to promote donation.     

Statistical guidelines for studies of the theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behaviour

Abstract

We identify potential problems in the statistical analysis of social cognition model data, with special emphasis on the theories of reasoned action (TRA) and planned behaviour (TPB). Some statistical guidelines are presented for empirical studies of the TRA and the TPB based upon multiple linear regression and structural equation modelling (SEM). If the model is tested using multiple regression, the assumptions of this technique must be considered and variables transformed if necessary. Adjusted R² (not R²) should be used as a measure of explained variance and semipartial correlations are useful in assessing each component's unique contribution to explained variance. R² is not an indicator of model adequacy and residuals should be examined. Expectancy-value variables that are the product of expectancy and value measures represent the interaction term in a multiple regression and should not be used. SEM approaches make explicit the assumptions of unidimensionality of constructs in the TRA/TPB, assumptions that might usefully be challenged by competing models with multidimensional constructs. Finally, statistical power and sample size should be considered for both approaches. Inattention to any of these aspects of analysis threatens the validity of TRA/TPB research.     

Achieving Higher Seat Belt Usage: The Role of Habit in Bridging the Attitude-Behavior Gap1

The Triandis (1977, 1980) model of habit is applied in an investigation of attitude-behavior discrepancy for seat belt use behavior. Habit is conceptualized as automated response, and the measure employed here is shown to be discriminated from measures of intentions and behavior. A case is also made for a distinction between pro-intentional and counter-intentional habits. Data from a random sample of 197 adult respondents show that the two habits (a) are distinct; (b) operate differently, that is, use habit has a main effect whereas nonuse habit interacts with attitude/intentions; and (c) explain belt use behavior nonredundantly with intention and attitude (e.g., their addition to attitude raises R² from 38.8% to 62.9%). Theoretical implications for understanding habit processes and programmatic directions for increasing the belt usage are discussed.     

Explaining Consumer Conduct: From Planned to Self‐Expressive Behavior1

Within mainstream social psychology, consumer behavior has been explained mainly in terms of the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Recently, some authors suggested that self‐identity dimensions can explain different types of intentions. To compare the predictive power of a tentative new model of self‐expressive consumer behavior with that of the TPB, three studies were conducted in which, besides the classical variables of the model of TPB, variables concerning self‐identity were also taken into account. Three independent samples (N₁= 257, N₂= 214, N₃= 298) were recruited to study the intention to buy fashionable watches, trendy backpacks, and cellular telephones in relation to the aforementioned variables derived from TPB and from identity theory. Data analyses, based on structural equation modeling, show that identity variables contribute significantly to the explanation of purchase intention.     

The Role of Self‐identity in the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Meta‐Analysis

The present study used meta‐analysis to evaluate the role of self‐identity in the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Altogether, 40 independent tests (N = 11607) could be included in the review. A large, sample‐weighted average correlation between self‐identity and behavioral intention was observed (r₊ = .47). Multiple regression analyses showed that self‐identity explained an increment of 6% of the variance in intention after controlling for the TPB components, and explained an increment of 9% of the variance when past behavior and the TPB components were controlled. The influence of self‐identity on behavior was largely mediated by the strength of behavioral intentions. Theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.     

Self-Identity and the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Useful Addition or an Unhelpful Artifice?1

Among the variables proposed as useful additions to the structure of the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), there is evidence for the predictive usefulness of a measure of self-identity. In the study reported here, members of the general population in the United Kingdom (n= 235) completed a questionnaire addressing the consumption of a diet low in animal fats. The questionnaire was structured in terms of the TPB and contained additional variables that previous research has indicated to be useful predictors of intentions and behavior. A multiple regression of intentions (R²= .80) showed self-identification as a health-conscious consumer to have a predictive effect independent of the effects of these other variables. This effect was also found in replication studies.     

The theory of planned behavior and healthy eating.

Application of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to healthy eating in 144 health promotion clinic attendees is reported. Respondents completed self-report TPB measures after the clinic (Time 1) and 6 months later (Time 2) with a measure of perceived past behavior. Intention stability was assessed on Time 1-2 differences. Six years later (Time 3), respondents completed measures of healthy eating intentions and behavior. Intentions were predicted by attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and perceived past behavior (cross-sectionally). Healthy eating behavior (Time 3) was predicted from intentions (Time 2). As intention stability increased, intentions and perceived past behavior became stronger and weaker predictors of behavior, respectively. Implications for understanding health cognitions in long-term performance of health behavior are discussed.     

Identifying Beliefs and Cognitions Underpinning Commuters' Travel Mode Choices

Interventions to reduce car use have shown limited success, in part due to limitations in models of transport choices. The theory of planned behavior (TPB) has provided a useful predictive model of car use but the specific beliefs that underpin TPB‐specified cognitions are less well understood. In this study, 229 university employees responded to a questionnaire and then reported their commuting choices 1 week later. Intention and perceived behavioral control (PBC) predicted car use (R² = .79). Intention was predicted by attitude, subjective norm, PBC, and moral norm (R² = .56). Beliefs could not be differentiated into attitudinal and PBC constructs, but seven beliefs predicted TPB cognitions. A similar model was tested for public transport use. The results identify key targets for future interventions.     

Predicting and Explaining Intentions and Behavior: How Well Are We Doing?

Meta-analyses of research using the theory of reasoned action (TRA) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB) show that these models explain on average between 40% and 50% of the variance in intention, and between 19% and 38% of the variance in behavior. This paper evaluates the performance of these models in predicting and explaining intentions and behavior. It discusses the distinction between prediction and explanation, the different standards of comparison against which predictive performance can be judged, the use of percentage of variance explained as a measure of effect size, and presents 9 reasons why the models do not always predict as well as we would like them to do.     

Exploring the beliefs underpinning drivers’ intentions to comply with speed limits

Using the theory of planned behaviour (TPB; [Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhl, J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action control: From cognition to behavior (pp. 11–39). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.]) as a theoretical framework, the present study was designed to: (a) identify the beliefs underpinning drivers’ intentions to comply with speed limits, and (b) test the expectancy-value theory held to underpin those beliefs. A sample of drivers (N = 598) completed questionnaires designed to measure TPB variables with respect to compliance with speed limits. The results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses provided support for the expectancy-value theory held to underpin each behavioural beliefs (outcome beliefs X outcome evaluations), normative beliefs (referent beliefs X motivation to comply), and control beliefs (control frequency beliefs X control power beliefs). Belief targets for road safety countermeasures that aim persuade drivers to comply with speed limits were also identified by selecting those beliefs that were the statistically significant predictors of direct TPB measures (attitudes, subjective norm, perceived control) and intention. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.     

Predicting Intentions to Conserve Water From the Theory of Planned Behavior,Perceived Moral Obligation,and Perceived Water Right1

This study tested the explanatory power of Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behavior (TPB), and a modified TPB model including perceived moral obligation (PMO) and perceived water right (PWR), to predict people's intentions to conserve water. The study had 244 government employees who participated. The TPB variables improved the prediction of intention to use less water, but were less successful in predicting intention to install water-efficient appliances. A significant interaction was found between attitude and subjective norm, suggesting that past studies have overlooked moderating effects in the TPB model. In addition to the TPB variables, PWR further improved the prediction of intention to install water-efficient appliances. Results also suggest that water-saving procedures should be differentiated into curtailment and efficiency procedures.     

Predicting People’s Intention to Donate Their Body to Medical Science and Research

Predictors of people’s intention to register with a body bequest program for donating their deceased body to medical science and research were examined using standard theory of planned behavior (TPB) predictors (attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control) and adding moral norm, altruism, and knowledge. Australian students (N = 221) at a university with a recently established body bequest program completed measures of the TPB’s underlying beliefs (behavioral, normative, and control beliefs) and standard and extended TPB predictors, with a sub-sample reporting their registration-related behavior 2 months later. The standard TPB accounted for 43.6%, and the extended predictors an additional 15.1% of variance in intention. The significant predictors were attitude, subjective norm, and moral norm, partially supporting an extended TPB in understanding people’s body donation intentions. Further, important underlying beliefs can inform strategies to target prospective donors.     

Testing an extended theory of planned behavior to predict young people's intentions to join a bone marrow donor registry

An extended theory of planned behavior (TPB) was used to understand the factors, particularly control perceptions and affective reactions, given conflicting findings in previous research, informing younger people's intentions to join a bone marrow registry. Participants (N = 174) completed attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control (PBC), moral norm, anticipated regret, self‐identity, and intention items for registering. The extended TPB (except PBC) explained 67.2% of variance in intention. Further testing is needed as to the volitional nature of registering. Moral norm, anticipated regret, and self‐identity are likely intervention targets for increasing younger people's bone marrow registry participation.