The role of child adrenocortical functioning in pathways between interparental conflict and child maladjustment

This study examined the interplay between interparental conflict and child cortisol reactivity to interparental conflict in predicting child maladjustment in a sample of 178 families and their kindergarten children. Consistent with the allostatic load hypothesis (McEwen & Stellar, 1993), results indicated that interparental conflict was indirectly related to child maladjustment through its association with individual differences in child cortisol reactivity. Analyses indicated that the multimethod assessment of interparental conflict was associated with lower levels of child cortisol reactivity to a simulated phone conflict between parents. Diminished cortisol reactivity, in turn, predicted increases in parental reports of child externalizing symptoms over a 2-year period. Associations between interparental conflict, child cortisol reactivity, and child externalizing symptoms remained robust even after demographic factors and other family processes were taken into account.     

The relationship of interparental conflict and global marital adjustment to aggression,anxiety, and immaturity in aggressive and nonclinic children

Although there is agreement that marital problems are associated either directly or indirectly with particular child behavior problems, there is disagreement about the types of marital conflict associated with these problems and the differential effects on boys and girls in clinic and nonclinic samples. We examined the relationships among mothers' ratings of marital adjustment, parenting disagreements, and three child problem factors (aggression, anxiety, and immaturity) after the child's age and family socioeconomic status were controlled. These relationships were compared with samples of boys and girls (3 to 8 years of age) from clinic and nonclinic populations, revealing that parenting disagreement predicted aggression in all groups and that both marital adjustment and parenting disagreement predicted anxiety in boys. Neither marital variable predicted immaturity. Possible reasons for the results (including methodological limitations of the present data) are discussed.Thanks to Merryl Reville and Kath Faulkner, Monica Smith and Dr. Bill Bor of Queensland Division of Child Guidance, and Pat Roberts of the Lady Gowrie Child Centre for their help with subject recruitment. Part of this study was supported by a Social Science Research Grant from the University of Queensland.     

On the association of interparental conflict with developing behavioral inhibition and behavior problems in early childhood.

Associations between interparental conflict and the development of temperament characteristics have seldom been addressed; moreover, studies on the impact of interparental conflict on developing behavior problems in infancy and early childhood are relatively rare. The authors therefore aimed to contribute to the study of these issues. A sample of 64 families was investigated longitudinally. At the infant age of 4 months, negative emotionality was measured with a laboratory routine. When infants were 4, 8, and 12 months old, maternal sensitivity was assessed during home observations, and interparental conflict was measured by means of questionnaires. When infants were 30 months old, behavioral inhibition was measured in 2 laboratory fear episodes, and behavior problems were assessed with a structured clinical interview of the primary caregiver. Interparental conflict and infant negative emotionality were significantly and independently associated with subsequent behavioral inhibition. The association of interparental conflict with behavior problems was moderated by infant negative emotionality. Infants high in negative emotionality developed more serious behavior problems when exposed to high interparental conflict, whereas the association was not significant in infants low in negative emotionality.     

Executive functioning moderates the relationship between motivation and adolescent depressive symptoms

We investigated the association between adolescent depressive symptoms and components of executive functioning (EF), including planning (Tower of London), set-shifting (Wisconsin Card Sorting Task), and inhibition (Stop Signal Task) in a community sample of 12–14 year olds. Further, EF was tested as a moderator of motivation (as operationalized by revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory) effects on depressive symptoms. Results suggested that planning ability was associated with depressive symptoms. Furthermore, planning ability moderated the relationship between motivation (fight-flight–freeze system; FFFS) and depressive symptoms, such that among adolescents with poor planning ability the FFFS positively predicted depressive symptoms, but among adolescents with strong planning ability the FFFS negatively predicted depressive symptoms. Neither set-shifting nor inhibition were associated with depressive symptoms. Findings highlight the need to consider multiple components of EF and to integrate motivational and executive dysfunction models to the study of depression.     

The relationship of young adolescent Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) scores to their social and cognitive functioning

The relationship of young adolescents' scores on the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) to subjective and objective indices of their social and cognitive functioning was examined. Subjects were 89 young adolescents (11–15 years old), their parents, and their social studies teachers. The correlations of adolescents' CDI scores with recent school grades, objective ratings of overt social behavior, and measures of adolescent social and cognitive competence as perceived by the adolescent, both parents, and the teacher were examined. CDI scores were significantly and negatively correlated with school grades, behavioral ratings of positive social communication, and adolescent, mother, father, and teacher perceptions of the adolescents' social and cognitive competence. The relationship of these findings to those of other CDI validity studies is discussed.This research was supported, in part, by the William T. Grant Foundation and the University of Georgia's Institute for Behavioral Research.     

The relationship between early development and psychosexual behaviors in adolescent females

The relationship between early sexual maturation and the psychosexual behaviors of dating and sexual intercourse was investigated using a national sample of adolescent females aged 15 to 19. Among both black and nonblack subjects, early-maturing girls were more likely to have experienced earlier dating and coital onset than were their later-maturing peers. Blacks experienced menarche and first intercourse at earlier ages, yet dating onset at later ages. Early menarche was also associated with marriage at an early age for nonblacks, but not for blacks. These racial differences were explained in terms of diverse socialization patterns or cultural expectations. For both blacks and nonblacks, those with earlier coital experience were found to have had menarche and dating onset at earlier ages.     

The nature of interparental conflict of married and divorced parents: Implications for young adolescents

While research has demonstrated that interparental conflict is associated with poor child and adolescent functioning, studies have not yet addressed the characteristics of such conflict. The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) to report reliability and validity data of a questionnaire, the Interparental Conflict Questionnaire (ICQ), designed to assess the nature of interparental conflict more thoroughly than has been done previously, and (2) to compare the nature of such conflict in a married and divorced sample. Fifty-five married and 46 divorced parents, all of whom had a young adolescent, participated by completing two questionnaires: the O'Leary-Porter Scale and the ICQ. Validity (e.g., correlation with the O'Leary-Porter Scale) was generally acceptable for the ICQ, whereas test-retest reliability tended to be moderate to low. Additional findings indicated that heated arguments rarely occurred. Furthermore, in comparing married and divorced parents, the former discussed issues more and, to some extent, the latter argued more. However, one of the most striking aspects of the findings was the similarity of the married and divorced samples in terms of their conflict. Implications of the findings for understanding and explaining the role of interparental conflict in child and adolescent functioning are explored.This study was supported, in part, by the William T. Grant Foundation and the University of Georgia's Institute for Behavioral Research.     

Adolescent triangulation into interparental conflict: Role of cognitive appraisals and birth-order

ABSTRACT

Triangulation of adolescents into interparental conflict has since long been recognized as a risk factor for adolescents’ psychological adjustment. However, there is a scarcity in research focusing on exploring the variables that make adolescents more vulnerable to get triangulated. This study used a cross-section research design to examine the relationship between interparental conflict and adolescent triangulation into that conflict in an under-researched population of Pakistani school going adolescents (N = 521), with an age range of 13-19 years (M = 15.25; SD = 1.46); while exploring the role of adolescent’s cognitive appraisals (threat and self-blame) and birth-order. The results indicated that interparental conflict, appraisal of threat and appraisal of self-blame are significant predictors of adolescent triangulation. Moreover, this study also revealed the moderating role of adolescent birth order in the relationship between interparental conflict and triangulation, as well as between appraisal of self-blame and triangulation; indicating that the ‘only’ child in the family was at the highest risk of being triangulated into their parents’ arguments, while the youngest child was least likely to get involved.     

Levels of interpersonal concerns and social functioning in early adolescent boys and girls

Previous research has shown that the Interpersonal Concerns factor of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ; Blatt, D'Affliti, & Quinlan, 1976, 1979; Depressive Experiences Questionnaire for Adolescent [DEQ-A]; Blatt, Schaffer, Bers, & Quinlan, 1992) assesses 2 levels of interpersonal relatedness in young adults and older adolescents: neediness and relatedness. However, studies investigating the relation of the DEQ and DEQ-A with social functioning have not used the Neediness and Relatedness subscales of the Interpersonal Concerns factor. This study investigated (a) whether the Neediness and Relatedness subscales can be differentiated in a sample of early adolescents and (b) how the 2 subscales are differentially associated with indexes of social functioning. Results indicate that this differentiation of Neediness and Relatedness, and their associations with social functioning, emerges in early adolescence, especially for girls.     

Associations among family adaptability and cohesion,interparental conflict,and tactics used during young adults' conflict with parents

The Statistics Anxiety Rating Scale has 51 items, each scored on a 5-point rating scale to measure statistics anxiety with six subscales, Worth of Statistics, Interpretation Anxiety, Test and Class Anxiety, Computational Self-concept, Fear of Asking for Help, and Fear of Statistics Teachers. Psychometric properties included analyses of construct and concurrent validities an internal consistency and test-retest reliability. 221 college students (74% women; M age=28 yr.) in elementary statistics courses at several southwestern state universities participated. The findings are consistent with previous reports and indicate adequate concurrent validity, internal consistency, and split-half reliability, but for construct validity confirmatory factor analysis yielded marginal support.     

The relationship of early adolescent substance use to extracurricular activities, peer influence, and personal attitudes

Two hundred and thirty-seven seventh- and eighth-grade students were assessed for levels of drug/alcohol use, involvement in extracurricular activities, peer influence, and personal attitudes. Cross-tabulations and the chi-square test of independence were used to statistically compare the three groups (non-users, users, and abusers). Several trends emerged from the data.     

Delineating the sequelae of destructive and constructive interparental conflict for children within an evolutionary framework

We examined the joint role of constructive and destructive interparental conflict in predicting children's emotional insecurity and psychological problems. In Study 1, 250 early adolescents (M = 12.6 years) and their primary caregivers completed assessments of family and child functioning. In Study 2, 201 mothers and their 2-year-old children participated in a multimethod, longitudinal design with 3 annual measurement occasions. Findings from structural equation modeling in both studies revealed that children's emotional insecurity in the interparental relationship mediated associations between destructive interparental conflict and children's psychological problems even after including constructive conflict and family and child covariates as predictors. Conversely, emotional insecurity was not a mediator of associations between constructive interparental conflict and children's psychological problems when destructive interparental conflict was specified as a risk factor in the analyses. The results are consistent with the evolutionary reformulation of emotional security theory and the resulting primacy ascribed to destructive interparental conflict in accounting for individual differences in children's emotional insecurity and its pathogenic implications (Davies & Sturge-Apple, 2007).     

Family functioning and eating attitudes and behaviors in at-risk early adolescent girls: The mediating role of intra-personal competencies

The relation between perceived family functioning, intra-personal competence, and eating attitudes and behaviors was examined in a sample of at-risk, ethnically diverse, early adolescents. Both family functioning and intra-personal competencies were related to eating attitudes and behavior. However, adolescent intra-personal competence, defined as self-control, negative, and positive coping, mediated the relationship between family functioning and eating attitudes and behaviors. Results suggest that by early adolescence, important aspects of family environment have consolidated into individual differences in competence and/or personality. Results are discussed within a developmental framework emphasizing the influence of the family on adolescent psychosocial development. The implications of these data for prevention and intervention with at-risk adolescent girls are also discussed. This work was supported by the National Institute of Drug Abuse, NIH, under Grant DA 07031, to Thomas J. Dishion. Appreciation is expressed to the parents and adolescents who participated in this study, as well as the staff at the Project Alliance office in Portland.     

Family functioning and eating attitudes and behaviors in at-risk early adolescent girls: The mediating role of intra-personal competencies

The relation between perceived family functioning, intra-personal competence, and eating attitudes and behaviors was examined in a sample of at-risk, ethnically diverse, early adolescents. Both family functioning and intra-personal competencies were related to eating attitudes and behavior. However, adolescent intra-personal competence, defined as self-control, negative, and positive coping, mediated the relationship between family functioning and eating attitudes and behaviors. Results suggest that by early adolescence, important aspects of family environment have consolidated into individual differences in competence and/or personality. Results are discussed within a developmental framework emphasizing the influence of the family on adolescent psychosocial development. The implications of these data for prevention and intervention with at-risk adolescent girls are also discussed. This work was supported by the National Institute of Drug Abuse, NIH, under Grant DA 07031, to Thomas J. Dishion. Appreciation is expressed to the parents and adolescents who participated in this study, as well as the staff at the Project Alliance office in Portland.     

The costs and benefits of sexism: resistance to influence during relationship conflict

This study tested whether men's and women's hostile sexism (HS) and benevolent sexism (BS) were associated with resistance to influence in couples' conflict interactions. Ninety-one heterosexual couples were recorded while trying to produce desired changes in each other. Participants reviewed their discussions and rated how open they were to their partner's perspective. Objective coders also rated the extent to which each partner exhibited hostile communication. We tested key principles arising from ambivalent sexism theory (Glick & Fiske, 1996). First, BS is necessary because mutual interdependence reduces the power of HS to influence women within intimate relationships. We found that the more men endorsed HS, the less open and more hostile both partners were, and the less successful their discussions were in producing desired change. Second, BS reduces the threat of women's dyadic power by revering and respecting women's interpersonal roles while restricting women's influence outside the relationship domain. We found that men who expressed higher agreement with BS were more open to their partners' influence and behaved with less hostility, and their discussions were more successful. These relationship benefits illustrate why BS is effective at disarming women's resistance to wider inequalities. These benefits, however, were contingent on men adopting BS attitudes. When women strongly endorsed BS but their male partner did not, women were less open, behaved with greater hostility, and perceived their discussions as less successful. These results indicate that, because BS increases the stakes within the relationship domain, women who endorse BS will react more negatively when their expectations are not realized.     

The relationship of MMPI and Sensation Seeking Scales to adolescent drug use

This study examined the relationship of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) measures, including the MacAndrew alcoholism (MAC) scale, and the Sensation Seeking Scales (SSS) to adolescents' drug use across nine drug categories. Subjects were 51 male and 72 female high school students between the ages of 14 and 18 (mean age = 16 years, 5 months). The drug use/abuse measure consisted of adolescents' self-reports on the Segal (1973) Alcohol-Drug Use Research Survey. Drug categories included for investigation were alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates, caffeine, cocaine, hallucinogens, marijuana, narcotics, and tobacco. Scores from standard MMPI scales, the MAC scale, and the SSS were examined in relation to individual drug use outcomes, and multivariate procedures were used to predict polydrug versus single drug use patterns. Results demonstrated significant and meaningful relationships between personality measures and drug use among adolescents, with consistently strong findings for the SSS.     

The relationship of parental drug use and parents' attitude concerning adolescent drug use to adolescent drug use

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of two variables, parental drug use and parental attitude toward adolescent drug use, both as perceived by the adolescent respondent to his or her own use or nonuse of drugs. A sample of 106 drug-using and 96 nondrug-using adolescents was obtained through the use of the anthropological " snowball " technique. All respondents were administered a drug use history profile and a personal data questionnaire. In order to be classed as drug users, respondents had to have been using two or more recreational substances on a regular basis. Nondrug users were those who used no recreational drugs, although individuals who had tried alcohol or tobacco experimentally were included in this group. On the personal data form, respondents were asked to describe their parents' use of alcohol, tobacco, or other substances, and to indicate their parents' attitudes concerning adolescent use of drugs. Parental attitudes were classed as permissive if the respondent indicated that parents were indifferent about drug use, if they accepted a certain range of drugs, or if the decision were left up to the youth. A nonpermissive attitude was defined as one which would not accept drug use by the adolescent. Four 2 x 2 Chi-square analyses were used to determine significance of the relationship between adolescent drug use and parents' use or nonuse of drugs, parents' attitudes about adolescent use or nonuse and actual adolescent use or non-use, and this same attitudinal relationship looking at parent users and nonusers separately.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Parent-completed and adolescent-completed CDIs: Relationship to adolescent social and cognitive functioning

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of both young adolescents' scores on the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) and their mothers' ratings of the adolescents' depression (parent-completed CDI) to indices of their social and cognitive functioning obtained from a source outside the home. Subjects consisted of a nonclinic sample of 85 young adolescents (11–15 years of age), their mothers, and their social studies teachers. Recent school grades and teacher-completed measures served as the indices of adolescent social and cognitive competence. The results indicated that both adolescents' and mothers' CDI scores were significantly and negatively correlated with measures of adolescent cognitive and social functioning. Multiple regression analyses, utilizing adolescent- and parent-completed CDI scores as predictors, indicated that both predictor variables entered into the equations for cognitive functioning while only the mother-completed CDI entered into those for social functioning. When maternal depression was also entered into the multiple regressions, the findings regarding mother- and adolescent-completed CDI scores were not altered. The relationship of these findings to other somewhat disparate findings concerning the utility of mother and child reports of child depression is discussed.This research was supported, in part, by the William T. Grant Foundation and the University of Georgia's Institute for Behavioral Research.     

Role of maternal functioning and parenting skills in adolescent functioning following parental divorce

While divorce has been associated with impaired child functioning, the mechanisms within the divorce process leading to such an outcome have rarely been examined. The following hypothesis was examined: Divorce is associated with poor parental adjustment or disrupts parenting behavior, or both, which leads to poor adolescent functioning. Subjects were 121 and 93 young adolescents from intact and recently divorced families, respectively, and their mothers and teachers. Mothers completed measures assessing parental conflict and depression, observers coded parenting skills during a mother-adolescent interaction, and teachers completed measures assessing adolescent functioning. Although the magnitude of differences was not large, analyses of variance indicated that the divorced sample was functioning poorer than the married sample on all measures except interparental conflict. Path analysis suggested that parental functioning and parenting skills play a role in adolescent functioning following divorce.