无意识目标：激活与追求

目标自动激活模型认为,目标是行为满意状态或结果在个体头脑中的表征,它能够通过相关情境自动激活。无意识目标的激活方式有语义激活、工具激活和人际激活。无意识目标追求与有意识目标追求在目标实现、目标投射和动机特征方面相似,但其行为产生机制有所不同。未来研究应该对无意识目标的机制及其具体应用进行深入的探讨     

成就目标启动对风险偏好的调节作用

新近研究发现,目标可以在无意识的条件下被激活并自动地引导行为以达成目标,但其内部机制尚不清楚。本研究试图考察风险偏好是否受无意识目标调节。实验采用问卷作为启动刺激,分别启动被试追求成功的目标与避免失败的目标,并在收益框架下和损失框架下测量被试的风险偏好。结果发现：在收益框架下,受到追求成功目标启动的被试比受到避免失败目标启动的被试更加偏好风险;而在损失框架下,两组被试间未发现显著差异。上述结果表明自动激活的成就目标可以影响个体的风险偏好,使个体面对风险情境时能做出更合适的行为以达成目标,即对风险偏好的调节是无意识目标自动影响行为的途径之一。     

无意识目标启动的定义、机制及应用

无意识目标与社会态度、刻板印象和图式等一样, 是行为的满意状态或结果在个体头脑中的一种表征, 包含有目标设定、追求情境和追求手段等内容。这些内容能够被环境中的刺激自动激活, 在意识不到的情况下影响人的心理和行为。无意识目标启动的概念和其他心理表征的启动不同, 无意识目标启动能够促使带有动机性的行为出现, 启动线索的影响不会随着时间的推移而消失。无意识目标启动的自变量与自身心理状态和环境中他人的影响有关, 无意识目标启动的因变量与任务表现和社会关系的处理有关。“知觉-行为模型”、“无意识行为选择模型”、“评价准备模型”和“情感因素模型”能够分别从“无意识”和“目标”两个角度对无意识目标启动的心理机制进行解释。无意识目标启动原理在商业、教育、医疗等领域当中有着广泛的应用前景, 为了更好地完善理论研究和进行实际应用, 今后应该更加重视无意识目标启动的脑机制研究。     

无意识目标对道德取向的调节作用

已有研究表明目标可以在无意识的条件下被激活并自动地引导行为以达成目标,但该过程是否通过调节心理准备状态实现尚不清楚。本研究考察了无意识目标对个体道德取向的影响。实验1通过语义启动方式激活被试的成就目标,结果发现,与未激活任何目标的被试相比,激活了无意识成就目标的被试更偏向功利主义道德取向。实验2激活被试母亲的概念,结果发现这部分被试比对照组更偏向道义主义道德取向。上述结果表明,自动激活的目标可以影响个体的道德取向,使个体面对道德情境时能做出更合适的行为以达成目标。     

目标感染研究述评

目标感染是动机领域新近出现的一个概念（Aarts等,2004）,所谓目标感染指的是个体可以自动的从他人行为信息中推测其目标并无意识的追求这一目标。目标感染在激活对象、复杂程度等方面不同于单纯的行为模仿,在行为性质、意识水平等方面又区别于观察学习。目标状态可及性、目标情感效价等因素会影响目标感染现象的发生。已有研究中通常采用目标相关词汇、社会信息两种方式进行目标的激活。作为对有意识目标追求的补充,目标感染的研究促进了我们对个体行为的理解。未来研究尚可就观察者特征、目标熟悉程度、被观察者数量等因素对目标感染的影响开展进一步的探讨。     

利用无意识目标启动降低个体的冲动购买行为：个体目标状态的调节作用

冲动购买会给个体和社会带来诸多不良影响,而探讨如何降低冲动购买的研究报道却很少。此外,仅有的少数研究都是从提升自我控制能力的角度来开展,其干预方法具有一定的局限性。本研究从提升自我控制的动机角度出发,考察利用无意识目标启动能否降低冲动购买,并考察其适用条件。研究发现,无意识目标启动可以显著降低有省钱目标个体的冲动购买行为,而对无省钱目标个体的冲动购买行为没有显著影响。本研究结果提示,无意识目标启动有希望成为一种简单、便捷的降低冲动购买行为的有效干预方式,特别是对有省钱目标的个体而言。     

无意识工作激励:定义、模型及展望

无意识工作激励是指由外部环境自动诱导出个体努力行为的过程,并且这种自动诱导的过程无法被个体所内省。目前已经被发现的无意识工作激励过程包括自动化评价,无意识行为模仿,态度、特质和刻板印象的激活,以及无意识目标激活等。从内在机制来看,镜像神经元理论可解释无意识行为模仿,无意识行为选择模型可用来解释无意识目标激励。未来应侧重研究无意识工作激励与有意识工作激励的关系,发展新的研究方法,并更深入地探索无意识工作激励的内在机制。     

无意识成就目标激活与追求:来自ERP的证据

为探索无意识目标激活的神经机制,采用单因素被试内设计,自变量为目标激活阶段无意识成就目标激活(有、无),因变量为阈下呈现的成就目标相关词(成就目标无关词)出现后所诱发的ERP成分,以及目标追求阶段被试判断两位数加减法算术式的正确率和平均反应时。结果发现:(1)无意识成就目标能够通过阈下启动得以激活;(2)阈下呈现的成就目标相关词诱发了一个明显的N200成分,可能反映了大脑执行控制功能在个体无意识成就目标激活与追求中的重要作用。     

目标追求过程中的权力效应

权力在心理学中被定义为一种对他人施加影响的能力。理论和实证研究都表明, 个体在目标追求的过程中, 个体权力感的高低对个体的目标追求的认知过程和行为结果都会产生影响。具体表现为在认知加工方面, 高权力者的信息加工抽象程度更高, 注意保持和分配能力也更好; 在行为结果上, 高权力者能更果断地设定目标、目标追求的行动力也更强。在权力和目标追求关系中, 预期自我调节的倾向类型起到中介作用。     

依从行为研究述评

依从是社会心理学研究的重要内容,是个体接受社会影响的重要方式之一。个体应对社会影响的内在机制和外在方式主要由人类行为的三个基本目标所决定,即对环境做出准确的认知并指导自己的行为,发展和形成有意义的社会关系,保持自我概念的一致性。文章重点论述了依从获得情境中的个体在此三个基本目标的支配下所发生的细微的、间接的和无意识的心理过程。     

Nonconscious goal pursuit: Acting in an explanatory vacuum

Nonconsciously activated goals and consciously set goals produce the same outcomes by engaging similar psychological processes (Bargh, 1990; Gollwitzer & Bargh, 2005). However, nonconscious and conscious goal pursuit may have different effects on subsequent affect if goal pursuit affords an explanation, as nonconscious goal pursuit occurs in an explanatory vacuum (i.e. cannot be readily attributed to the respective goal intention). We compared self-reported affect after nonconscious versus conscious goal pursuit that either violated or conformed to a prevailing social norm. When goal-directed behavior did not require an explanation (was norm-conforming), affective experiences did not differ after nonconscious and conscious goal pursuit. However, when goal-directed behavior required an explanation (was norm-violating), nonconscious goal pursuit induced more negative affect than conscious goal pursuit.     

Using nonconscious behavioral mimicry to create affiliation and rapport

Nonconscious behavioral mimicry occurs when a person unwittingly imitates the behaviors of another person. This mimicry has been attributed to a direct link between perceiving a behavior and performing that same behavior. The current experiments explored whether having a goal to affiliate augments the tendency to mimic the behaviors of interaction partners. Experiment 1 demonstrated that having an affiliation goal increases nonconscious mimicry, and Experiment 2 further supported this proposition by demonstrating that people who have unsuccessfully attempted to affiliate in an interaction subsequently exhibit more mimicry than those who have not experienced such a failure. Results suggest that behavioral mimicry may be part of a person's repertoire of behaviors, used nonconsciously, when there is a desire to create rapport.     

Nonconscious goal pursuit in novel environments: the case of implicit learning

Is nonconscious goal pursuit useful in novel environments? The prevalent view of automaticity and control implies that an unconscious mode of goal pursuit can only reproduce formerly learned actions, and therefore that its usefulness in novel environments is very limited. Our results demonstrate that this conclusion is not always warranted, as nonconscious goal pursuit facilitated participants' learning of the structure of completely novel environments. Specifically, two experiments, using markedly different implicit-learning paradigms, demonstrated facilitation of implicit learning when the goal of achievement was primed. We propose that nonconscious goal pursuit can facilitate not only reproductive operations, but also productive ones, and that implicit learning is sensitive to the organism's nonconscious goals.     

个体及同伴调节聚焦对目标追求的影响

探讨个体与同伴的调节聚焦对目标追求的影响及感知相似性在其中的作用。回归分析显示,个体促进聚焦×同伴促进聚焦交互项显著预测同伴作用评价、求助意愿及动机水平,简单斜率分析表明,同伴为高促进聚焦时个体促进聚焦的积极效应更明显。中介分析表明,感知相似性是个体促进聚焦×同伴促进聚焦交互项与同伴作用评价、求助意愿之间关系的中介变量。总的来说,同伴调节聚焦能调节个体调节聚焦与目标追求的关系,且这一作用部分受到感知相似性的中介。     

On the emergence of deprivation-reducing behaviors: Subliminal priming of behavior representations turns deprivation into motivation

Building on recent research into the emergence of human motivation and goal pursuit in the absence of the conscious awareness of the source of this pursuit, the present article aimed to shed light on how states of deprivation (e.g., deprivation of fluid) actually produce the motivation and corresponding behavior that lifts the deprivation. Two studies established that when participants were relatively deprived of fluids, they experienced enhanced motivation to drink and consumed more fluid in an alleged tasting test, and these effects were more pronounced when the concept of drinking was rendered accessible by subliminal priming. These results suggest that specific motivational goal states and corresponding behaviors do not arise directly from deprivation per se, but that accessible goal-related cognitions play a role in this process. Implications for theory and research on deprivation and non-conscious goal pursuit are briefly discussed.     

Making sense of one’s actions in an explanatory vacuum: The interpretation of nonconscious goal striving

Previous research has found that performing norm-violating behaviors based on a nonconsciously-activated goal elicits negative affect (Oettingen, Grant, Smith, Skinner, & Gollwitzer, 2006). In the present research we explored whether this negative affect is eliminated when an earlier conscious goal with congruent behavioral effects can be used to explain the norm-violating behavior. Our findings suggest that applicable conscious goals are indeed used to interpret nonconsciously-activated goal striving (Study 1), and that this interpretation occurs reflexively rather than reflectively (Study 2), with implications for interpersonal behavior (Study 3). The role of social norms, applicable conscious goals, and negative affect in the interpretation of nonconscious goal pursuit is discussed.     

Taking a closer look: On the operation of nonconscious impression formation

In this article, we analyzed the information processing that underlies nonconscious impression formation. In the first experiment, the nonconscious activation of the impression formation goal led to a faster analysis of the trait implications of behaviors, compared with a control group. In Experiment 2, participants who were nonconsciously primed with an impression formation goal were more likely than those in a control condition to form associations in memory between behaviors and implied traits. In Experiment 3, nonconsciously primed participants were more sensitive than those in a control condition to whether inconsistent trait information was relevant or irrelevant to the actor’s disposition. Moreover, in Experiments 2 and 3, those with a nonconscious goal showed just as much evidence of impression formation as those who were consciously and intentionally trying to form an impression. Implications for nonconscious goal-pursuit and impression formation are discussed.