The transition from middle childhood to early adolescence: Sex differences in the social network and perceived self-competence

This study concerns the development of social networks from middle childhood to early adolescence. On a longitudinal sample of 100 children seen at 9 and 13 years of age, three basic questions were addressed: 1) age changes, 2) sex differences, and 3) the relation between network characteristics and self-perceived competence in early adolescence. The number of and frequency of contact with kin, adults and friends for each subject were assessed at 9 and 13 years using maternal report. Teenager report of academic, social, athletic and behavioral conduct was also collected. The transition to early adolescence was marked by several changes in the social network. At 13 years networks become more age segregated. Both opposite and same sex friends show an increase. Sex differences were also evident. For example, adolescent girls had a larger network of friends than boys. Adolescent boys had less segregated adult networks. For adolescent girls but not boys, the friendship network was related to specific types of competence.The preparation of this paper was made possible by the support of the William T. Grant Foundation.     

Social competence in Zimbabwean multicultural schools: Effects of ethnic and gender differences

S tudents' social competence was investigated in relation to race/ethnicity and gender for a sample of 371 Zimbabwean students attending racially/ethnically integrated schools. About 42% of the students were black, and 58% white (mean age 12 years; SD=9 months). Peer and teacher sociometric ratings of children's social behaviour, social responsibility, and friendliness comprised the social competence measures. Tests of empirical independence among these social competence measures supported their uniqueness in reliably assessing components of the general construct of social competence among Zimbabwean students. Multiple analysis of variance procedures were used to examine the relationship between social competence statuses and group membership (i.e., race/ethnicity, gender) while controlling for aggregate scores and classroom racial proportions. Superior academic achievement and racial/ehnic propinquity are social status levelling factors in multiracial school settings. Teachers rated white students higher on social responsibility and social behaviour. Students rated white students higher on social responsibility only. Comparisons of social competence by ethnicity and gender revealed that white and female students were rated significantly higher on social behaviour and social responsibility than their black and male classmates. Female students were perceived as more socially competent or better adjusted to school than males. Reliable differences in social competence in race/ethnicity and gender groups were concentrated in peer ratings of social responsibility and in teacher ratings of social behaviour and social responsibility. In postcolonial settings or settings with a history of race/ethnicity and gender‐based privilege, minorities from a dominant culture may have higher social status than peers from a majority culture. Superior social competence in females is a resource for school adaptation and social climate. Students have perceptions of social competence in peers that only partially overlap with those of teachers and contribute uniquely to their experience of school. Social competence in students is multifaceted, gendered, and differently perceived by teachers and peers.     

Willing and able? Theory of mind,social motivation,and social competence in middle childhood and early adolescence

This study investigated the links between theory of mind, social motivation, and children's social competence in middle childhood and early adolescence. Two hundred and sixty four children (136 girls, 128 boys) aged between 8 and 13 years (M Age = 10.88 years, SD = 1.45) completed theory-of-mind tests and self-report questionnaires measuring social motivation. Teachers rated children's social competence at school. Teacher-rated social competence was associated with individual differences in both theory of mind and children's motivation to develop and maintain social relationships. Results suggest that while individual differences in social motivation and theory of mind are partially overlapping, both theory of mind ability and social motivation contribute to successful social interaction at school.     

Maternal and Paternal Perceptions of Social Competence in Children and Adolescents

We examined maternal and paternal perceptions of social competence in children and adolescents. One hundred forty-seven parents rated scenarios depicting children who varied in age, gender, and social competence. Parents also completed questionnaires assessing the amount of time they spend with their own children, their gender identity, their psychological symptoms, and their affectivity. Results indicated that the amount of time parents spend with their own children was related to maternal and paternal ratings, whereas affectivity was related to paternal ratings. In contrast, parents’ gender identity and psychological symptoms were unrelated to their ratings of social competence. Finally, there was an interaction between parent gender and the level of social competence depicted in the scenarios they rated, suggesting that there were differences in maternal and paternal ratings. These findings emphasize the importance of examining the perceptions of both mothers and fathers when assessing social competence in children and adolescents.     

漫画认知发展特点的研究

对小学三年级至大学一年级五个年级的200名被试进行了测验,以考查被试的漫画认知的发展特点.研究结果表明:(1)各年级被试对漫画的认知具有明显的年龄特征,存在两个快速发展期,即三至五年级(9—12岁),初二至高二(14—18岁);(2)漫画认知在性别上略有差异,但就各年级而言差异不显著.     

Links between sex-typed time use in middle childhood and gender development in early adolescence

The authors studied sex-typing in the kinds (e.g., sports, handicrafts) and social contexts (same- vs. other-sex companions) of children's free time activities, and the links between sex-typed activities and gender development over 2 years. Participants were 200 White, working- and middle-class children (103 girls, 97 boys; mean age = 10.86 years). In annual home interviews, children rated their self-esteem, gender role attitudes and sex-typed personality qualities, academic interests, and school grades. During 7 nightly phone interviews each year, children reported on their activities. Boys were more sex-typed than girls in their peer activities, and children were least sex-typed in their activities with siblings. Sex-typed activities in middle childhood predicted individual differences in gender development in early adolescence.     

Distinguishing types of social withdrawal in children: Internalizing and externalizing outcomes of conflicted shyness versus social disinterest across childhood

Little research has examined the effect of subtypes of social withdrawal on the development of psychopathology across childhood.Parents of 493 children (220 females) completed a measure of their child’s conflicted shyness and social disinterest as well as the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) when their child was age 3, and again at age 6. When children were age 9, parents completed the CBCL.From 3 to 6, conflicted shyness predicted increases in anxiety symptoms in boys and girls, and predicted depressive symptoms in boys. From 6 to 9, social disinterest predicted increases in anxiety symptoms in girls and boys, and predicted increases in depressive symptoms in boys. In addition, in boys, conflicted shyness at age 6 predicted increases in externalizing symptoms at age 9.Conflicted shyness appears to be particularly problematic in early to middle childhood, while social disinterest appears to be more maladaptive in later childhood, with some differences by gender.     

Socio‐emotional development: From infancy to young adulthood

Results from the Uppsala Longitudinal Study (ULS), which started in 1985, are reported in two sections. The first section gives a summary of longitudinal data from infancy to middle childhood (age 9 years; n = 96) concerning predictions of social functioning aspects from the theoretical perspectives of temperament, attachment, and health psychology (social factors). The second section presents the first results emanating from a follow‐up when participants were 21 years old (n = 85). The developmental roots of social anxiety symptoms were studied from the same perspectives as above, although with a special focus on the predictive power of the temperament trait of shyness/inhibition. Results for middle childhood outcomes showed that temperament characteristics were relevant for most outcomes, whereas the contribution of attachment was most convincingly shown in relation to social competence and personality. Social factors were found to have moderating functions, but direct effects were also shown, the most interesting perhaps being positive effects of non‐parental day care. Results from the 21‐year data confirmed the expected predictive relation from shyness/inhibition to symptoms of social anxiety and further showed this relation to be specific; the relation to symptoms of depression did not survive control for social anxiety, although the opposite was true. The broad analysis of predictor associations with social anxiety, showing the relevance of other temperament factors as well as interactive effects, again attested to the need for multi‐faceted models to analyze developmental trajectories.     

Widowhood and illness: a comparison of social network characteristics in France, Germany, Japan, and the United States.

This study examined social network characteristics of adults aged 70 to 90 years in relation to widowhood and illness in France, Germany, Japan, and the United States. Participants were drawn from representative samples from each of the 4 countries (total N = 1,331). Resource deficit profiles based on whether respondents were widowed, ill, both, or neither were directly related to social network characteristics for German and Japanese adults, were differentially related by gender and age for French adults, and were not related to social networks of Americans. Country, gender, and age differences in total network size, proportion of close network members, and frequency of contact with network members are reported. Similarities and differences found in the associations between normative late-life deficits and social network characteristics in the 4 countries point to the importance of investigating sociocultural factors that mediate the impact of resource loss and afford life quality in very old age.     

The child's social network: Sex differences from three to six years

The social networks of 85 young children as they make the transition from a home-centered to a more school-centered existence is examined using longitudinal data. When the children were three and six years of age, their mothers completed a questionnaire of network structure; at six years both the child and mother independently reported the friends that the child would invite to a birthday party. The effects of age and sex of child on the number and daily contact with peers, adults, kin, nonkin, males, and females were found. As expected, as children reached formal school age they had increased contact with peers and decreased contact with kin, while adult contact remained fairly consistent over the three- to six-year age period. Sex differences were also apparent. As predicted, children as early as 3 years, and to an even greater extent at six years, showed more same-sex compared to opposite-sex peer contact. At six years both children and mothers reported more same- as compared to opposite-sex friends who would be invited by the child to a birthday party. The findings suggest how children's social networks, as shaped by their parents and themselves, provide a framework within which experience and interaction is structured to fit cultural norms.     

儿童2岁活跃性、自我控制与5年后学校适应——父母养育方式的调节作用

通过5年的追踪,考察儿童早期气质特征对后期社会适应的影响。选取200名2岁儿童,采用实验室观察法评价其气质上的活跃性和自我控制;在其7岁时追踪到125名儿童,请父母报告养育方式、班主任老师评价其社会能力和学业表现。结果表明：（1）儿童2岁时的活跃性对5年后学校适应的预测总体是消极的,并且受父母养育方式调节;父母的高限制和低压制能够抵消活跃性对学习问题和任务定向的消极影响;（2）儿童2岁时的自我控制对于5年后的所有积极学校适应指标（学业成绩、低学习问题、果敢社交、挫折耐受、任务定向）有直接预测作用。这一结果揭示了气质上的活跃性与自我控制在儿童发展过程中的不同作用,父母应根据孩子的气质特点实行差别化教育。     

Distinguishing among disruptive behaviors to help predict high school graduation: Does gender matter?

This study examined unique predictive associations of aggressive and hyperactive–inattentive behaviors in elementary school with high school graduation. The current study also investigated whether these associations were moderated by gender. At Time 1, 745 children in the 3rd through 5th grades completed peer ratings on their classmates’ disruptive behaviors. At Time 2, school records were reviewed to determine whether students graduated within four years of entering high school. Results showed that gender and hyperactivity-inattention are uniquely associated with high school graduation, but childhood aggression is not. Results also indicated that gender moderated associations between hyperactivity–inattention and graduation. Among boys, hyperactive–inattentive behaviors were not significantly associated with graduation, above and beyond aggression. In contrast, among girls, hyperactive–inattentive behaviors in childhood were significantly associated with graduation even after controlling for aggression. These findings suggest that in middle childhood, hyperactive–inattentive behaviors may be a more meaningful predictor of high school graduation than other forms of early disruptive behavior (e.g., aggression), especially for girls. Such findings could have significant implications for prevention and intervention programs designed to target children at risk for dropping out of school.     

Longitudinal stability of temperamental exuberance and social-emotional outcomes in early childhood

The goals of the current study were to investigate the stability of temperamental exuberance across infancy and toddlerhood and to examine the associations between exuberance and social-emotional outcomes in early childhood. The sample consisted of 291 4-month-olds followed at 9, 24, and 36 months and again at 5 years of age. Behavioral measures of exuberance were collected at 9, 24, and 36 months. At 36 months, frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry was assessed. At 5 years, maternal reports of temperament and behavior problems were collected, as were observational measures of social behavior during an interaction with an unfamiliar peer in the laboratory. Latent profile analysis revealed a high, stable exuberance profile that was associated with greater ratings of 5-year externalizing behavior and surgency, as well as observed disruptive behavior and social competence with unfamiliar peers. These associations were particularly true for children who displayed left frontal EEG asymmetry. Multiple factors supported an approach bias for exuberant temperament but did not differentiate between adaptive and maladaptive social-emotional outcomes at 5 years of age.     

Main and Moderated Effects of Moral Cognition and Status on Bullying and Defending

This study analyzed the relations of two dimensions of moral cognition (i.e., acceptance of moral transgression and moral disengagement) and two forms of status in the peer group (i.e., social preference and perceived popularity) with bullying and defending among 235 primary‐school children and 305 middle‐school early adolescents. Social status was tested as a moderator of the associations between moral cognition and bullying and defending. Participants completed self‐reports assessing the two dimensions of moral cognition and peer nominations for status, bullying, and defending. Both acceptance of moral transgression and moral disengagement were associated to bullying among early adolescents only, whereas in childhood moral disengagement was linked to defending among girls. Social status moderated the associations between morality dimensions and bullying and defending. The moderating effects of status were discussed considering status as a magnifying lens for the relations between individual characteristics and social behavior. The results were also discussed with reference to age and gender differences in the associations. Aggr. Behav. 38:456‐468, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Lack of early child care effects on school-age children's social competence and academic achievement

Teacher ratings of social competence and academic achievement were obtained from a sample of 127 Bermudian children at ages 5, 6, 7 and 8 years. The children were studied first during their pre-school years, when they had been exposed to various amounts and qualities of day care. Quality of care was found to be important to the children's intellectual and social development while they were in the day care settings but not after 1–4 years of primary schooling. In hierarchical and simultaneous regressions, family background characteristics, not child care amounts or qualities, were found to be predictive of social competence and academic achievement in the primary grades. By school age, the effects of infant and preschool child care experiences were no longer influential in children's development, but family background continued to be important. These findings and their implications for child care are discussed.     

儿童4岁时自我延迟满足能力对其9岁时学校社会交往能力预期的追踪

采用追踪研究,用实验室实验和情境观察相结合的方法考察了54名儿童4岁时的自我延迟满足能力,5年后结合教师访谈与评定、同伴提名、儿童自评等方法综合评定这些儿童9岁时的学校社会交往能力,探讨儿童4岁时自我延迟满足能力对其9岁时学校社会交往能力的预期作用。结果表明：儿童4岁时的自我延迟满足能力水平可以预期其9岁时的学校社会交往能力水平。4岁时自我延迟满足能力高的儿童在9岁时的学校社会交往能力总体发展也好,其遵守规则与执行任务能力、与教师交往能力、与同伴交往能力、社交情绪发展水平都显著高于那些在4岁时自我延迟满足能力低的儿童;反之则差     

Do you "want" to play? Distinguishing between conflicted shyness and social disinterest in early childhood

This study attempted to distinguish two types of social withdrawal in early childhood: (a) one based on social fear and anxiety despite a desire to interact socially (conflicted shyness) and (b) one based on the lack of a strong motivation to engage in social interaction (social disinterest). Two samples of preschoolers (n = 119 and n = 127) 3-5 years of age participated. Their mothers completed the newly developed Child Social Preference Scale, which was designed to assess conflicted shyness and social disinterest. Maternal ratings of child temperament, parenting style, and social goals, teacher ratings of child social adjustment, observations of child free-play behaviors, and child interview assessments of perceived competence and preference for playing with peers were also collected. Distinct patterns of associations were found between conflicted shyness and social disinterest and outcome variables. Implications for the motivational underpinnings and adjustment outcomes of shyness and social disinterest are explored.     

稳定性与可变性：西方儿童青少年“大五”人格发展研究概述

弄清儿童青少年人格发展特点,可为人格发展与教育工作提供参考。文章梳理了近30年西方儿童青少年“大五”人格发展的研究进展,区分了人格发展的两种主要表现形式,并分别从这两方面总结出儿童青少年“大五”人格结构的稳定性、人格特质平均水平的可变性。最后基于现有研究存在的问题,结合当前时代特点,提出未来研究方向。     

Social Anxiety and Peer Relations in Early Adolescence: Behavioral and Cognitive Factors

This study investigated factors associated with social anxiety during early adolescence using multiple informants, including self and peer perspectives, teacher ratings, and direct observations. Negative social performance expectations, maladaptive coping strategies, and social skill deficits were examined as correlates of social anxiety and mediators linking social anxiety with poor peer relations. Participants were 84 middle school students (47 girls, 37 boys) over-sampled for elevated social anxiety. Analyses revealed correlations linking social anxiety with decreased peer acceptance and increased peer victimization. Path analysis indicated that negative social performance expectations and social withdrawal-disengagement accounted for the association between social anxiety and decreased peer acceptance. Social anxiety, self-directed coping strategies, and social withdrawal-disengagement were each directly linked with increased peer victimization for boys. The results replicate findings based on clinical samples, extend understanding of cognitive, social, and behavioral factors associated with social anxiety in middle school, and provide new information regarding gender differences in the correlates of social anxiety.     

A longitudinal study of mother-child interactions at school entry and social and academic outcomes in middle school

This study examines the association between quality of mother-child interaction assessed at kindergarten entry and children's social and academic outcomes in middle school. The relation between early mother-child interactions and later school performance was examined controlling for demographic variables (e.g., maternal education, family's ethnicity, estimated child IQ, and child's gender) often associated with school outcomes. Ratings of mother-child interaction were assessed for 122 mother-child dyads on the first day of kindergarten. Children's social and academic performance in school (e.g., discipline problems, classroom behavior, and grades) was assessed via teacher observation and grade reports through the eighth grade. Results indicate that positive quality of mother-child interaction accounted for unique variance in social and academic success in early adolescence over and above the contribution of demographic variables. Further, the relation between mother-child patterns and middle school social outcomes varied as a function of ethnicity. These findings support the exploration of process-oriented social variables for predicting later social and academic competence.