Testing Competing Models of Sales Force Communication

Based upon findings from the organizational communication, management, and marketing literatures, this study evaluates three competing models describing sales force communication. The results of the analysis suggest that the theorized PEO (Sales Manager Communication Practices? Sales Force Communication Environment? Salesperson Communication and Job Outcomes) Model best accounts for the relations between sales manager communication practices and salesperson communication and job outcomes. Specifically, the PEO Model holds that sales manager communication practices are positively associated with salesperson perceptions of communication quality. Communication quality is positively associated with salesperson satisfaction with communication; salesperson communication satisfaction is positively related to salesperson's job satisfaction and organizational commitment. These results and their implications for developing an effective sales force communication environment are detailed.     

The effect of environmental orientation on salesperson effort and participation: the moderating role of organizational identification

Environmental orientation has emerged as a noteworthy strategy for firms attempting to provide an authentic, unified image of environmental commitment to stakeholders. However, it is yet to be assessed from those employees most responsible for conveying an environmental image. This research examines the construct from the salesperson's point of view. Integrating social identity theory within a traditional Input-Process-Output framework, we demonstrate the importance of aligning firm ideals with individual boundary spanner identity in an environmental context. Our findings suggest that salespersons' perceptions of a firm's environmental orientation directly influence their effort and participation. Further, this relationship is amplified when the salesperson also has strong organizational identity. Finally, when salespeople put more into their work or actively engage in improving their company's environmental image, this increased effort and participation ultimately contributes to individual sales performance and job satisfaction.     

Salesperson Job Involvement: A Modern Perspective a New Scale

Job involvement is a person's psychological identification or commitment to his/her job. Job involvement is an important construct in salesforce performance research because (1) it is a relevant consequence of a salesperson's work environment and internal feelings, (2) it is a relevant antecedent of a number of important sales job outcomes, and (3) it impacts the socialization process for salespeople. Because sales jobs have changed markedly over the past decade, a salesperson's job involvement now tends to be more focused on relationships with clients and less on aspects within an organizational boundary. The most widely used measure of job involvement (Lodahl and Kejner 1965) is not occupation-specific to sales. This article outlines the development of a new scale for relationship-based salesperson job involvement utilizing rigorous assessments of reliability, validity, and dimensionality within a broad sample of practicing salespeople.     

Effect of salespeople's acquisition–retention trade-off on performance

This research examines the impact of the acquisition–retention resource allocation at the individual salesperson level – that is, the proportion of their time dedicated to acquisition versus retention activities – on their sales performance. We extend prior research that investigates the acquisition–retention trade-off below (i.e., customer value approach) or above (i.e., firm portfolio approach) the salesperson's perspective by also incorporating many ‘within-firm’ factors that are critical to capturing the contingent nature of the allocation decision. The results suggest that firms can double their sales gains by implementing a trade-off strategy that customizes the acquisition allocation at the salesperson level. Using matched triadic data gathered from 227 salespersons, 106 supervisors and the seller's database, the authors find an inverted U-shaped linkage between the proportion of time allocated to acquisition activities and sales performance. Moderation analyses show that salespeople's optimal acquisition allocation depends on their knowledge breadth and job commitment, their supervisor's experience and job commitment and the quantity and quality of the prospects in their relationship portfolio.     

The Effects of Salesperson Need for Achievement and Sales Manager Leader Reward Behavior

A sample of 312 salespeople from diverse industries was used to develop a model that examined the influence of salesperson need for achievement and sales manager positive leader reward behavior on several key organizational outcomes. The organizational outcome variables examined were goal acceptance, sales performance, and organizational commitment. The results suggest that a salesperson’s need for achievement may lead to higher performance, but not necessarily commitment to the organization. However, positive leader reward behavior may strengthen a salesperson’s organizational commitment. The findings, along with suggestions for sales managers, are discussed.     

The Effect of Vertical Exchange Relationships on the Performance Attributions and Subsequent Actions of Sales Managers

This study examines the type of relationship that exists between the sales manager and subordinate (vertical exchange status), and its impact on the sales manager's attributions about the subordinate performance, as well as subsequent responses to the subordinate. Results indicate that cadres may receive preferential consideration in explaining their performance, which then impacts the sales manager's response to the salesperson. The findings imply that sales managers should be careful in assigning attributions for performance by both cadre and hired hand salespersons.     

Antecedents and consequences of salesperson identification with the brand and company

To date, little research has investigated the antecedents and implications of salespersons' identification with the brands and the companies they represent. As the nature of the selling job is unique from other inside employee positions, with increased independence of the firm and loyalty that may be expanded to the customers rather than the firm itself, an investigation of this phenomenon within the sales context holds significant implication for sales force management. The salesperson also represents an extension of the marketing communication programme of the firm and thus has direct bearing on how the company and brand image are communicated to the customer. Therefore, the purpose of our paper is to hypothesize and empirically test the notion that higher levels of perceived congruence between a salesperson's own values and those values of the brand and company he or she represents will lead to higher brand identification and company identification which in turn should create higher job satisfaction, commitment and performance. We discuss our results and offer practical insights to sales managers. Further, we discuss limitations of our study and provide directions for future research.     

Antecedents and Outcomes of Organizational Commitment: A Study of Salespeople

The role organizational commitment plays in salesperson behavior is unresearched. To increase understanding of both causes and outcomes of organizational commitment for salespeople, this study proposed and tested a path model. The model was drawn from the framework for studying organizational commitment proposed by Chornco (1986).

The study results imply that salespeoples' performance is not determined by commitment or by effort, but that it is positively affected by the sales manager, income and education. Commitment was positively affected by anticipatory socialization, work satisfaction and manager satisfaction. Means for building commitment are discussed, as are situations where management should stress salesforce commitment.     

Salesperson–brand relationship: main dimensions and impact within the context of private brand retailing

Private branding is considered one of the most effective and efficient influencers of retailers’ return on investment in their fiercely competitive industry. However, no study to date has examined these brands’ impact on salespeople's motivation and commitment to their own employer. This study, based upon extensive qualitative and quantitative research, shows that salespeople's relationships with their private brands can be influential in increasing their selling motivation and organizational commitment. Toward this end, our study first identifies the three important dimensions of salesperson–brand relationship (affect, trust, perceived customer recognition due to the brand) and develops their measures. Second, the findings show that salesperson–brand relationships, which exist between the retail frontline employees and retailers’ private brand, strongly influence sales motivation and firm commitment with a moderating influence of role clarity regarding management's expectations from its salespeople.     

Does Salesperson Perception of the Importance of Sales Skills Improve Sales Performance,Customer Orientation,Job Satisfaction,and Organizational Commitment,and Reduce Turnover?

This research was designed to determine whether salesperson perceptions regarding the importance of specific sales skills and behaviors relate positively to sales performance, customer orientation, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and lower levels of turnover intentions. The development of the sales skill measure resulted in the creation of two different scales, one focused more on traditional sales skills and the second on more consulting-oriented sales behaviors. The results and conclusions provide support for the concept that skill/behavior development and assessment are worthy pursuits for sales managers and their organizations.     

The 30‐Sec Sale: Using Thin‐Slice Judgments to Evaluate Sales Effectiveness

A successful sale depends on a customer's perception of the salesperson's personality, motivations, trustworthiness, and affect. Person perception research has shown that consistent and accurate assessments of these traits can be made based on very brief observations, or “thin slices.” Thus, examining impressions based on thin slices offers an effective approach to study how perceptions of salespeople translate into real‐world results, such as sales performance and customer satisfaction. The literature on the accuracy of thin‐slice judgments is briefly reviewed. Then, 2 studies are presented that investigated the predictive validity of judgments of salespeople based on thin slices of the vocal channel. Participants rated 20‐sec audio clips extracted from interviews with a sample of sales managers, on variables gauging interpersonal skills, task‐related skills, and anxiety. Results supported the hypothesis that observability of the rated variable is a key determinant in the criterion validity of thin‐slice judgments. Implications for the use of thin‐slice judgments in salesperson selection and customer satisfaction are discussed.     

Ideal Versus Actual Number of Sales Calls: An Application of Disconfirmation Theory

The current study focuses on the relationship that buyers have with their salespeople. Specifically, the study uses disconfirmation theory to evaluate whether a salesperson that meets or exceeds the buyer’s ideal number of sales calls has higher levels of commitment, trust, and satisfaction from the buyer than a salesperson that does not meet expectations. The study also looks at the impact of meeting expectations on the buyer’s evaluation of the salesperson’s commitment and performance versus a salesperson that does not meet expectations. Findings suggest that when a salesperson contacts a buyer with a frequency and consistency that the buyer perceives as ideal, the buyer will have a higher level of satisfaction with and trust of the salesperson as well as a higher level of commitment to the buyer–seller relationship. Managers could take advantage of this by making an effort to align a salesperson’s call frequency with what a buyer perceives as ideal.     

The Effects of Perceived Supervisor Support,Perceived Organizational Support,and Organizational Justice on Turnover among Salespeople

This study examined effects of three dimensions of organizational justice on salesperson perceived organizational support (POS), perceived supervisor support (PSS), performance, and actual salesperson turnover in a business-to-business setting using a sample of 384 salespeople. Results indicated that PSS is an indirect predictor of turnover intentions through POS and performance. Organizational commitment mediated the relationship between POS and turnover intentions. Procedural justice had a direct, positive influence on performance. Distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice were indirect predictors of turnover through other variables. The salesperson’s performance was related directly to both turnover intentions and turnover.     

The Effects of Sales Message and Suspicion of Ulterior Motives on Salesperson Evaluation

This research investigates the extent to which a salesperson's presentation and consumer suspicion of ulterior motive affect salesperson evaluations and purchase intentions. Study 1 indicates that a salesperson's presentation plays an essential role in confirming or discontinuing consumer suspicion and that this process has important implications in the formation of salesperson attitudes. Evidence from Study 2 demonstrates that these interaction effects are mediated by persuasion‐motive attributions. The findings also support a direct link between attitude toward the salesperson and purchase intentions. Collectively, these results extend the persuasion literature by demonstrating that suspicion of motive is a dynamic state in which consumers entertain rival hypotheses about the salesperson (e.g., is the salesperson truly motivated to help me, or motivated to make his or her commission?) and that, depending on the degree of suspicion, the same salesperson's tactics will be processed very differently by consumers.     

Organizational Commitment in the Sales Force

Abstract

Research concerning the determinants of salesperson performance has emphasized expectancy theory. While results of such studies have added greatly to our understanding of sales force behavior, the expectancy theory approach has been questioned concerning its ability to explain consistency in behavior. A potential alternative explanation for behavioral consistency lies in the concept of organizational commitment. This paper explores organizational commitment in a sales setting, discussing research findings from other disciplines and providing a conceptual framework to help guide future research in sales management.     

Salesperson brand attachment: a job demands-resources theory perspective

Sales researchers have largely ignored the idea that salespeople form attachments to the brands that they sell, and that these attachments hold important consequences for sales outcomes. Drawing on job demands-resources theory, the authors suggest that salesperson brand attachment (SBA) serves as a unique psychological resource for salespeople. Using data from 154 salespeople from the beverage industry, they provide evidence that SBA increases selling effort toward the brand, and ultimately job satisfaction. In addition, they show that salesperson's brand attachment acts as a buffer against perceived job demands, including job codification and hierarchy of authority. In general, results support the job demands-resources framework and confirm that SBA is a resource that may be leveraged to offset job demands, under certain situations.     

The Effects of Equal Opportunity Fairness Attitudes on Job Satisfaction,Organizational Commitment,and Perceived Work Group Efficacy

We examined a causal model relating military respondents’ attitudes toward equal opportunity (EO)-related fairness to job satisfaction, organization commitment, and perceptions of work group efficacy. A distinction between EO fairness at the work group and organizational levels was made. Respondents’ perceptions of organizational EO-related fairness were hypothesized to influence perceptions of work group EO fairness. Respondents’ perceptions of work group EO fairness were in turn hypothesized to influence their organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and perceived work group efficacy. Structural equation modeling with a measurement model sample and two random samples each consisting of 5,000 observations provided support for these hypothesized paths. As a part of the investigation, we also examined and found support for causal linkages between perceived work group efficacy, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. The practical and theoretical importance of the findings for the U.S. military, particularly with regard to issues of retention and training, are discussed.     

Connect within to connect outside: effect of salespeople's political skill on relationship performance

Scholars have recently explored the effects of salespeople's intraorganizational relationships on salespeople's job-related outcomes. Grounded in social influence theory, we explore the effects of salespeople's intraorganizational skills on salesperson relationship performance. We empirically tested the proposed relationships using the data from a non-Western sales force working with an organization in an emerging economy. The results indicate that salespeople's political skill positively contributes to salespeople's identification with the organization and to creative performance, while strikingly, we also find that salesperson task adaptivity weakens these effects. Moreover, salespeople's identification and creative performance are positively related to customer satisfaction. These findings demonstrate that salespeople's intraorganizational relationships play a key role in enhancing customer satisfaction. In light of these results, we explore implications for marketers and academics and conclude by suggesting directions for further research.     

Parents' Appraisals,Reflected Appraisals,and Children's Self-Appraisals of Sport Competence: A Yearlong Study

This study investigated the contribution of the reflected appraisal process to the ontogeny of children's self-perceptions of physical competence. Emanating from symbolic interactionist thought, reflected appraisals refer to individuals' perceptions of others' evaluations of their abilities. The influence of parents' appraisals of their child's competence on the child's self-appraisals was hypothesized to be mediated by parents' reflected appraisals. Data were collected from a sample of 147 sixth graders and their parents in three waves over one school year. Structural equation modeling revealed that 1) parents' appraisals at Wave 1 influenced children's reflected appraisals of parents at Wave 2; 2) reflected appraisals at Wave 2 influenced children's self-appraisals at Wave 3, controlling for both the child's actual level in sport (as assessed by the child's grade in physical education) and the child's self-appraisals at Wave 1; and 3) the influence of parents' appraisals on their child's self-appraisals was nonsignificant when reflected appraisals were controlled for. This study supported the mediational role of the reflected appraisal process. The findings from this study provide a unique contribution to the sport socialization knowledge base by highlighting the role of the reflected appraisal process in the formation of children's self-appraisals of ability.     

Consumer perception of salesperson influence strategies: an examination of the influence of consumer goals

• Consumers regularly interact with retail salespeople in order to make purchases across a wide range of products and services. Retail sales encounters occur on a daily basis yet we know little about these complex interactions, especially from the consumer's perspective in terms of his or her perceptions with regard to these types of persuasive attempts. Understanding consumer perceptions is an important precursor to understanding consumer behavior during retail sales encounters. In three experiments subjects' perceptions of specific influence strategies were measured with regard to the degree of sales‐orientation of each strategy. Support was found for hypotheses that proposed that certain influence strategies would be perceived as significantly more sales‐oriented than others and that the interaction of consumer goals with salesperson influence would affect how influence strategies are perceived. Willingness to interact with and purchase from a salesperson using specific influence strategies was also examined in order to shed light on how the use of specific influence strategies is likely to affect consumers' intentions.

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.