Age and Sex Differences in the Cooperative and Noncooperative Behavior of Pairs of American Children

Game playing behavior of same and mixed sex pairs of 5-, 8-, and 11-year-old American children was compared, using a game in which cooperative behavior maximized reward. Pairs of 8- and 11-year-old children were relatively more cooperative and attained significantly more Joint Reward Goals than 5-year-old pairs. Older pairs were not maximally cooperative, however, in terms of all the dependent measures; in adjusting for initial differences on practice trials, 5-year-olds and 8-year-olds took less time than the 11-year-olds, and 11-year-old pairs of boys took significantly more time than all other pairs. In addition, cooperative behavior increased across trials, especially for the 11-year-old children.     

Age Differences and Sex Differences in some Introvertive and Emotional Traits

Two quantitative experiments involving eidetic imagery, performed in 1928–29 on two girls, ages 11 and 15 years, respectively, were repeated in every detail in 1974 on the same two persons. It was found that minor changes (perhaps unreliable) had occurred in the precision of eidetic projection, and that both Ss retained their ability to project a seen circle onto a target square and compare the two for “goodness of fit.”     

Sex and Age Differences in the Risk Threshold for Delinquency

This study examines sex differences in the risk threshold for adolescent delinquency. Analyses were based on longitudinal data from the Pittsburgh Youth Study (n?=?503) and the Pittsburgh Girls Study (n?=?856). The study identified risk factors, promotive factors, and accumulated levels of risks as predictors of delinquency and nondelinquency, respectively. The risk thresholds for boys and girls were established at two developmental stages (late childhood: ages 10–12 years, and adolescence: ages 13–16 years) and compared between boys and girls. Sex similarities as well as differences existed in risk and promotive factors for delinquency. ROC analyses revealed only small sex differences in delinquency thresholds, that varied by age. Accumulative risk level had a linear relationship with boys’ delinquency and a quadratic relationship with girls’ delinquency, indicating stronger effects for girls at higher levels of risk.     

Sex Differences in Expressive Thought of Gifted Children in the Classroom

This study was a comparison of 92 high-achieving gifted girls with 97 high-achieving gifted boys on measures of cognitive thinking, classroom expressiveness, self-concept, and attitudes. These secondary school boys were significantly more expressive than the girls on all classroom variables. Written tests of similar abilities revealed no differences except that the girls were better at giving solutions to hypothetical problems. Differences found in self-concept and attitudes of the present sample supported the conclusions drawn by Kagan that intellectual aggressiveness is seen, in part, as a masculine counterpart and that this type of behavior when visible, as in the classroom discussion, may well raise anxiety and inhibit the gifted girl from full expression. The part played by sex-role expectations in inhibiting the free expression of intellectual power of girls in academic settings and later life would seem to warrant much further investigation. The expressive range of performance within sex groups also represents an important area for investigation.     

Sex Differences in Relationship Aggression Among Young Adults in Germany

The study examined the prevalence of physical aggression in the relationships of young adults in Germany. A convenience sample of 248 women and 400 men aged between 17 and 29 years provided reports of physical aggression shown toward and experienced by a partner using the revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2). Sex differences were found for several physically aggressive behaviors measured by the CTS2, mostly for minor forms of physical aggression. All sex differences were in the direction of women scoring higher than men on the perpetration of aggressive acts, and men scoring higher than women on being the targets of partner aggression. The findings are discussed in the context of the current debate on sex differences in relationship aggression.     

Perception of Sex From Complex Body Movement in Young Children

This article reports on a study of the perception of sex from complex body movement. Studies by Cutting and his associates (Barclay, Cutting, & Kozlowski, 1978; Kozlowski & Cutting, 1977) and by Runeson and Frykholm (1983) have shown that adult observers of both adult and child actors (11-12 years old) can reliably recognize the sex of the actor. In this study, prepubescent actors (4-5 years old) were employed, and the role of familiarity of observers with children of this age was also examined. Ten children (4-5 years old), 5 boys and 5 girls, performed 7 actions similar to those employed in Runeson and Frykholm's study: walking in a circle, running in a circle, throwing a ball, lifting a box, sitting on the floor, sitting on a chair, and climbing onto a chair and jumping down. Point-light displays were made of each child performing each action. Each actor was recorded performing each action once. An experimental tape was prepared in which all 70 acts from the source tape appeared in a counterbalanced order such that each child appeared once in each block of 10 trials and each action appeared once in each block of 7 trials. The effect of familiarity was explored by employing 3 different groups of observers: the parents of the child actors, a group of adults familiar with children of this age, and a student group of young adults not familiar with children of this age. The overall detection rate was only just above chance and none of the observer groups performed better than chance. Sex was reliably perceived, however, for particular actors and for particular actions. The implications of these findings for Runeson and Frykholm's kinematics specifies dynamics principle are noted.     

Gender Differences in Work-Family Guilt in Parents of Young Children

The transition to parenthood is a watershed moment for most parents, introducing the possibility of intra-individual and interpersonal growth or decline. Given the increasing number of dual-earner couples in the United States, new parents’ attitudes towards employment (as well as the ways in which they balance employment and personal demands) may have an impact on their overall well-being. Based on anecdotal accounts, guilt about the conflict between employment and family (termed work-family guilt) appears particularly pervasive among U.S. mothers of young children; specifically, mothers, but not fathers, express high levels of a subtype of work-family guilt, that pertains to the negative impact their work has on their families (termed work-interfering-with-family guilt). However, little research within psychology has explicitly examined this phenomenon, and to our knowledge, no quantitative study has investigated gender differences in work-family guilt among U.S. parents of young children. In a cross-sectional, correlational study involving 255 parents of toddlers from the greater Southern California area, we coded parents’ narrative responses to a series of open-ended questions regarding employment and family for the presence of work-family guilt and work-interfering-with-family guilt (in the form of guilt about the negative impact of employment on children). Mothers had significantly higher work-family guilt and work-interfering-with-family guilt relative to fathers. We discuss our findings in terms of theory on gender roles, as well as the questions they generate for future areas of investigation.     

Sex and Age Differences in Suicide Rates in a Canadian Province:

ABSTRACT: Changes in age and sex suicide rates and methods are shown for a 20-year period. Rate increases from the earliest base have occurred in all age-sex groups. The proportion of poison suicides has increased greatly beginning in 1960 for women, 1965 for men. Adults 30 and over account for most of the increase in ingested poisons; death by carbon monoxide also occurs with increasing frequency among all males, as do violent suicides in males under 30. Accidental poisonings follow a similar pattern. In view of increasing alcohol consumption, risks of concomitant alcohol-drug use are discussed, as are certain protective features for women inherent in their disproportionately high use of medically prescribed drugs.     

Age and Gender Differences in Young People's Perceptions of Sport Participants1

Pre‐ and middle‐adolescent girls’ and boys’ perceptions of sport were examined using the Draw a Sportsperson test. Almost all the boys drew male figures, while the girls drew figures of both sexes. However, older girls drew a majority of male figures, many of whom were sports celebrities, while younger girls drew similar numbers of male and female figures, most of the latter being peers. A substantial number of drawings of sports celebrities were produced. The majority of these were of male, high‐profile soccer players. The possible significance of these results for the increase in the gender gap in sporting interest at adolescence, and the influence of the media on boys’ and girls’ perceptions of sport are discussed.     

Personality Development in Emerging and Young Adulthood: A Study of Age Differences

Early adulthood is a time of substantial personality change characterized by large inter‐individual diversity. To investigate the role of age in this diversity, the present study examined whether emerging adults differ from an older group of young adults in their Big Five personality development. By means of multi‐group latent change modelling, two groups of 16‐ to 19‐year‐olds (n = 3555) and 26‐ to 29‐year‐olds (n = 2621) were tracked over the course of four years and compared regarding four aspects of personality change: mean‐level change, rank‐order change, inter‐individual differences in change, and profile change. In addition, age‐differential socialization effects associated with six first‐time life events were investigated. Analyses revealed substantial age differences in all four aspects of change. As expected, emerging adults showed greater change and diversity in change than young adults. However, the six life events had no age‐differential impact on change in single traits and Big Five profiles. Overall, the results indicate that age differences should be considered even in specific life stages to advance the understanding of personality development. © 2018 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Overflowing Every Idea of Age, Very Young Children as Educators

In this article I explore if and how very young children can be the educators of their early childhood educators. I describe and discuss a story constructed form a fieldwork done in one early childhood setting in Norway. The story is read with Levinas and his concepts Said and Saying. Further I discuss if and how this might be understood as education arguing that the children`s expressions are offering new beginning and change in the pedagogical thinking and praxis within the early childhood setting.     

A Study of Gender Differences in Autobiographical Memory: Broken Down by Age and Sex

Data from 40 older adults who produced autobiographical memories to word cues and to the request to list five important memories, and data from 60 older adults who answered factual multiple-choice questions for events spread across their lives, were analyzed for gender differences. In spite of considerable statistical power, there were no gender differences in the distribution of autobiographical memories over the lifespan, in the distribution of important memories, in various ratings provided to these memories, or in the distribution of knowledge for events. The only gender difference found was that men performed better on factual questions about current events and baseball. Thus, counter to what might be expected from Darwinian theory and some behavioral data, gender differences were minimal.     

Spatial Memory and Response Strategies in Rats: Age, Sex and Rearing Differences in Performance

Rats reared in social isolation made more errors on a spatial memory task and made errors earlier in each trial than socially reared rats. The difference in performance only occurred when rats were isolated prior to 50 days of age, and it survived IOO days of subsequent social housing. IOO days of isolation after 50 days of age did not influence performance on the spatial memory task. Subsequent experiments suggest that spatial abilities may not differ between groups but that isolates are slower to learn to make a particular response and to locate a particular arm when spatial and response cues are irrelevant. In contrast to previous experiments, clear response strategies were seen in the present experiments. These were prevalent in the young (54-days-old) rats, were less common at 90 days and had completely disappeared by 180 days. Response strategies were more common in male rats and in socially reared rats.     

3～5岁儿童情绪能力的年龄特征、发展趋势和性别差异的研究

本研究采用测验法和问卷法,考察了150名3～5岁儿童的情绪能力的年龄特征、发展趋势和性别差异。结果表明:(1)3～4岁幼儿的情绪理解能力有显著变化,对积极情绪的理解要高于对消极情绪的理解,女孩推测他人情绪状态的能力高于同龄男孩;(2)幼儿能够运用多种策略来应对同伴之间的冲突情境,使用频率最高的策略是建构性策略,其次是回避和情绪释放策略,最后是破坏性策略;(3)幼儿的情绪观点采择能力能够预测情绪调节的发展。     

Sex Differences in Cognition are Stable Over a 10-Year Period in Adulthood and Old Age

ABSTRACT

Sex differences in declarative memory and visuospatial ability are robust in cross-sectional studies. The present longitudinal study examined whether sex differences in cognition were present over a 10-year period, and whether age modified the magnitude of sex differences. Tests assessing episodic and semantic memory, and visuospatial ability were administered to 625 nondemented adults (initially aged 35–80 years), participating in the population-based Betula study at two follow-up occasions. There was stability of sex differences across five age groups and over a 10-year period. Women performed at a higher level than men on episodic recall, face and verbal recognition, and semantic fluency, whereas men performed better than women on a task-assessing, visuospatial ability. Sex differences in cognitive functions are stable over a 10-year period and from 35 to 90 years of age.     

Age and Sex Differences in Morningness/Eveningness Along the Life Span: A Cross-Sectional Study in Spain

Work psychology has noted the importance of considering the temporal dimension of behavior in organizations. Given that society widely operates on a 24-hr schedule, it is important to know how circadian typologies are distributed in the general population. In this study, diurnal preference was analyzed among 4,175 Spanish participants (61.3% women), 12–59 years old, who completed the Composite Scale of Morningness (Smith, Reilly, & Midkiff, 1989). Several measurement models of the CSM were analyzed using exploratory structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis. The bifactor model showed the best fit, with a general factor (morningness/eveningness) and three subfactors (morningness, morning affect, and time of retiring). The age and sex factorial invariance of the bifactor model were tenable at the latent variance-covariance level. Next, age and sex differences analysis indicated a progressive increase in morningness with age, but over 40 years old, men were more morningness oriented than women were. These results indicate that morningness/eveningness can be considered a multidimensional construct and that psychosocial factors must be considered when estimating the prevalence of morningness/eveningness in different populations or countries.