Do Substitutes for Leadership Really Substitute for Leadership? An Empirical Examination of Kerr and Jermier′s Situational Leadership Model

Although Kerr and Jermier′s (1978) "Substitutes for Leadership" model has generated a substantial amount of interest among leadership researchers, a number of recent attempts to test this model have not proven to be overly supportive. An examination of many of the previous studies suggests at least two potential reasons for this lack of support: (a) the relatively poor psychometric properties of the scales used to measure the substitutes constructs, and (b) deficiencies in the way that the model has been tested. This paper reports the results of two studies conducted to address these problems. The first study was designed to examine the psychometric properties of a revised 74-item measure of the substitutes constructs. Analysis of the data obtained from 372 working MBAs was encouraging and suggested that the dimensionality and reliability of the revised scales were substantially better than the original ones. Following this, a composite sample of 612 employees drawn from three different organizations was used to examine the effects of the substitutes variables. The results indicated that many of the 13 subordinate, task, and organizational characteristics identified by Kerr and Jermier (1978) contributed significantly to the amount of variance accounted for in subordinate performance, attitudes, and role perceptions. However, few of the substitutes variables moderated the relationships between the leader behaviors and the subordinate criterion variables in a manner consistent with that specified by Howell, Dorfman, and Kerr (1986). The importance of these findings and their implications for future research are then discussed.     

Relationships among Coach Leadership,Peer Leadership,and Adolescent Athletes’ Psychosocial and Team Outcomes: A Test of Transformational Leadership Theory

Transformational leadership theory provided a framework to examine the relationships of coach and peer leadership with individual and team outcomes among team sport athletes. Adolescent female soccer players (N = 412) completed measures assessing coach and teammate transformational leadership behaviors, perceived competence, intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, team cohesion, and collective efficacy. Structural equation modeling revealed that coach leadership was more influential than peer leadership for predicting individual outcomes and collective efficacy, peer leadership was more strongly related to social cohesion than coach leadership, and both peer and coach leadership were equally important for task cohesion. Results are discussed relative to the viability of using transformational leadership theory to understand coach and athlete leadership in the sport domain.     

Prediction of Action- and Thought-Oriented Response: Behavioral Style or Situational Demand?

Male college students (N = 72) were administered an occupations/activities preference scale as a measure of action- and thought-oriented behavior styles, and responded to seven TAT cards varying in degrees of “stimulus pull” for action and thought modes of expression. Verbs in TAT stories were assigned to action and thought categories. Mean percentages of action and thought verbs were significantly related to both Ss’ behavior styles and to TAT stimulus demands. The results support Phillips’ (1968) action-thought typology, but suggest that situational demand may be equally as important as behavior style in determining one's action or thought mode of response in a given situation. Additional results raised questions concerning the adequacy of Phillips’ developmental conceptualization of action-thought behavior styles.     

Can Religion Promote Virtue?: A More Stringent Test of the Model of Relational Spirituality and Forgiveness

Rather than simply studying whether religious individuals are more forgiving than nonreligious individuals, recent research has focused on how religion may promote a more fluid and efficient forgiveness process. The present studies sought to strengthen evidence for a model of relational spirituality and forgiveness (Davis, Hook, & Worthington, 2008 Davis, D. E., Hook, J. N. and Worthington, E. 2008. Relational spirituality and forgiveness: The roles of attachment to God, religious coping, and viewing the transgression as a desecration. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 27: 293–301.  [Google Scholar]), given the reliance of prior studies on cross-sectional designs that did not control for hurtfulness of the offense. In Study 1, spiritual appraisals predicted unforgiveness, controlling for hurtfulness and other covariates. Furthermore, using structural equation modeling, empathy was found to partially mediate the relationship between spiritual appraisals and unforgiveness. In Study 2, participants (N = 123) completed a survey weekly for 6 weeks that included measures of relational spirituality and forgiveness. Appraisals of relational spirituality predicted subsequent unforgiveness, as well as the rate of decline in unforgiveness. Thus, using a more stringent test, we found additional evidence for the model.     

A Test and Refinement of the Demand–Control–Support Model in the Construction Industry

This study aims at a test and further refinement of the Demand–Control–Support (DCS) model among construction workers (N = 210). On the basis of theory and empirical evidence, we hypothesized that mental or physical job demands, low job control, and lack of social support at work have direct and synergistic effects on burnout. The model was expanded by hypothesizing that burnout mediates the relationships between these potentially demanding working conditions on the one hand, and health complaints on the other. Results of a series of structural equation analyses partly supported these hypotheses. The proposed model fitted adequately to the data, although some variables in the DCS model did not make a unique contribution to explaining variance in burnout and (indirectly) health complaints. Interestingly, lack of social support was the most important determinant of burnout and health complaints among construction workers. In addition, a significant three-way interaction effect partly confirmed the synergism hypothesis: Physical demands were only related to burnout if participants had poor job control and reported high social support. The implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.     

Cognitive Resources and Leadership Performance: What About the Task Requirements?

Fred E. Fiedler made an important contribution in summarising and discussing the tricky relationships between test-intelligence, time in service, and perceived experience on the one side, and rated leadership performance on the other. Two strings of results seem to be of importance for improving our knowledge on these relationships: (1) test-intelligence correlates with rated performance especially in the case of low perceived stress, and experience especially in the case of high stress; (2) test-intelligence correlates with rated performance if the other resource, perceived experience, is low. Both strings of results may fit with our expectations. Nevertheless, some aspects of the problem might trouble some readers, for reasons that Fiedler is not responsible for. There seem to be at least three clusters of unfulfilled wishes within this topic of research: selection and operationalisation of variables; design; and task requirements and intelligence.     

Can the Hopelessness Model of Depression and Response Style Theory Be Integrated?

The Hopelessness Model (Abramson, Alloy, & Metalsky, 1989 ) and response style theory (Nolen‐Hoeksema, Girgus, & Seligman, 1992 ) have been integrated in various ways, but these integrations have not been compared. German college students (N = 311, mean age = 23.27 years, SD = 6.57 years, 80% female) rated their depressive symptoms, negative inferences, and rumination 3 times. Findings supported an integrated model whereby individual inferences predict and interact with the rumination subtype brooding to affect depressive symptoms.     

Belly Dance as an Embodying Activity?: A Test of the Embodiment Model of Positive Body Image

The study aimed to test Menzel and Levine’s (2011) embodiment theory of positive body image in the context of belly dance. Participants were 213 women from Adelaide, South Australia. They comprised 112 belly dancers recruited from two belly dance schools, and a sample of 101 college women who had never participated in belly dance. Participants completed questionnaire measures of positive body image, body dissatisfaction, self-objectification, and enjoyment of sexualization. It was found that belly dancers scored higher on positive body image and lower on body dissatisfaction and self-objectification than the college students. There was, however, no difference between groups in enjoyment of sexualization. Importantly, in support of the embodiment model, the effect of belly dance group on positive body image was mediated by reduced self-objectification. It was concluded that belly dance represents an embodying activity, one associated with a number of benefits for its practioners, including positive body image.     

A Test of the Three-Component Model of Gender-Based Prejudices: Homophobia and Transphobia Are Affected by Raters’ and Targets’ Assigned Sex at Birth

Sex Roles - The present study tested a three-component model of homophobia and transphobia that differentiates between general and specifically gender-based social threats that motivate these...     

Women and Leadership: A Developmental Paradox?

In this article, the author explores the nature of leadership from a gendered perspective, specifically addressing leadership challenges for women. Leadership challenges, gender stereotypes, and definitions of leadership are discussed. Recommendations for professional redefinition of leadership within the counseling profession and strategies for successful negotiation of leadership roles are provided.     

The Sales Force Technology–Performance Chain: The Role of Adaptive Selling and Effort

Firms continue to struggle with the implementation of sales force technology tools and the role they play in sales representative performance. This research expands previous literature in the area of sales force automation (SFA) and customer relationship management (CRM) by looking at the consequences after technology adoption by a sales force. Data were gathered from three sources to include 662 sales representatives, 60 sales managers, and fi rm archival data. Using structural equation modeling, our fi ndings indicate that SFA usage has a direct impact on effort, thereby reducing number of hours worked, and CRM usage has a direct positive impact on adaptive selling behaviors. Moreover, experience moderates the relationship between CRM usage and adaptive selling. Discussion, limitations, and directions for future research are also discussed.     

Estimates of the Validity and Utility of the Conners’ Continuous Performance Test in the Assessment of Inattentive and/or Hyperactive-Impulsive Behaviors in Children

This study evaluated the validity and classification utility of the Conners' Continuous Performance Test (CCPT) in the assessment of inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive behaviors in children. Significant, positive correlations between the CCPT parameters and behavioral ratings of ADHD behaviors were hypothesized. In addition, it was hypothesized that the CCPT parameters would perform better than a random test (chance) and show fair to moderate utility of classification across the different indices. Participants were 104 children between 6 and 12 years of age who were referred for evaluation of attention problems. The first hypothesis was not supported. There were no significant, positive correlations between the CCPT parameters and parent and teacher ratings of inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive behaviors. The second hypothesis was only partially supported. The CCPT Overall Index and the Omission Errors (84th percentile cutoff) performed better than a random test; however, the utility of the CCPT Overall Index only ranged from poor to slight. Receiver operating characteristic analyses showed the accuracy of the CCPT to be low. The implications and limitations of this study and future research directions are discussed.     

Does Salesperson Perception of the Importance of Sales Skills Improve Sales Performance,Customer Orientation,Job Satisfaction,and Organizational Commitment,and Reduce Turnover?

This research was designed to determine whether salesperson perceptions regarding the importance of specific sales skills and behaviors relate positively to sales performance, customer orientation, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and lower levels of turnover intentions. The development of the sales skill measure resulted in the creation of two different scales, one focused more on traditional sales skills and the second on more consulting-oriented sales behaviors. The results and conclusions provide support for the concept that skill/behavior development and assessment are worthy pursuits for sales managers and their organizations.     

A Test of a Model of New Salespeople’S Socialization and Adjustment in a Collectivist Culture

Drawing largely on organizational socialization theory and its derivations, such as uncertainty reduction and sense-making theory, the authors propose and test empirically a process model of newcomer salesperson socialization in the South Korean context. The results indicate that both organization-initiated and newcomers’ proactive socialization tactics (i.e., seeking performance feedback and information seeking, building relationships and networks) significantly influence newcomers’ perceived level of accommodation (i.e., role clarity and social integration) and thus their adjustment to the new work environment (i.e., level of organizational commitment, job performance, and job satisfaction). The authors discuss the theoretical and managerial implications and present future research directions.     

The Role of Job Crafting and Perceived Organizational Support in the Link between Employees’ CSR Perceptions and Job Performance: A Moderated Mediation Model

Current Psychology - This study aims to test the mediating effect of job crafting on the relationship between employees’ corporate social responsibility (CSR) perceptions and job performance,...     

Using HLM to Explore the Effects of Perceptions of Learning Environments and Assessments on Students’ Test Performance

The study examines the role that perceptions or impressions of learning environments and assessments play in students’ performance on a large-scale standardized test. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was used to test aspects of the Learning Errors and Formative Feedback model to determine how much variation in students’ performance was explained by students’ and school principals’ perceptions of learning environments and assessments. Results from sequential HLM testing indicated that students’ but not principals’ perceptions explained a significant, although modest, amount of the total variation in students’ test performance. These results suggest that when students perceive learning environments to be safe and valuable, and positive assessment activities to be taking place, they tend to perform better on standardized tests than when they perceive learning environments and assessment activities otherwise. These findings provide a rationale for investigating the variables that can help improve students’ perceptions in order to enhance their test performance.     

Implicit Trait Policies in Multimedia Situational Judgment Tests for Leadership Skills: Can They Predict Leadership Behavior?

To explain why situational judgment tests are often correlated with personality measures, Motowidlo, Hooper, and Jackson (2006a Motowidlo, S. J., Hooper, A. C. and Jackson, H. L. 2006a. Implicit policies about relations between personality traits and behavioral effectiveness in situational judgment items. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 749–761. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2006b Motowidlo, S. J., Hooper, A. C. and Jackson, H. L. 2006b. “A theoretical basis for situational judgment tests”. In Situational judgment tests: Theory, measurement, and application, Edited by: Weekley, J. A. and Ployhart, R. E. 57–81. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.  [Google Scholar]) developed the implicit trait policy theory. Implicit trait policies are beliefs about causal relationships between personality traits and behavioral effectiveness. Among 180 employees, this field study examined whether a multimedia situational judgment test that was intended to assess leadership skills can capture individual differences in such policies. Furthermore, it was examined whether these implicit trait policies were able to predict leadership behavior. Results confirmed that the situational judgment test was able to capture individual differences in implicit trait policies for Extraversion and Conscientiousness. Furthermore, results showed that implicit trait policies for Extraversion can predict leadership behavior over and above leadership experience and the associated personality trait.     

Why Sin?—A Test and an Exploration of the Social and Psychological Context of Resentment and Desire

This article focuses on the theory put forward by Donald Capps in his The Depleted Self (Sin in a narcissistic age. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993) that there is a particular link between some forms of narcissism and the commitment of particular deadly sins. The data in the research reported in this paper robustly validate the idea that the psychological consequences of the bureaucratic consumer society, understood as a lack of individual well-being leading to a narcissistic defense, show the theological relevance of the deadly sins in understanding those conditions in society which on a global scale appear to threaten the individuality of the single person. Narcissism, both in its covert and overt mode, seems to be the most important variable in explaining the two factors of sin: resentment and desire. In addition to the effects already accounted for by well-being and narcissism, the possible contribution of religion and biography is explored.

Measuring Mental Toughness in Sport: A Psychometric Examination of the Psychological Performance Inventory–A and Its Predecessor

The Rorschach Inkblot Method (RIM) is a performance-based personality assessment instrument used in both clinical and research settings worldwide. This investigation examines response-level, interrater reliability of U.S. graduate students enrolled in the same doctoral program and divided into two unique participant groups: 20 of those with previous Comprehensive System (CS) training background who are now trained in Rorschach Performance Assessment System (R-PAS; initial coders N = 11, blind coders N = 9), and 19 of those trained solely with R-PAS (initial coders N = 10, blind coders N = 9). Trainees’ coding was analyzed based on a sample of 50 protocols (half per group) representing a total of 1,189 responses. Blind coding was used among trainees and coding between the two investigated training groups was analyzed for each variable at the response level and expressed as percent agreement, Gwet's AC, and kappa values. Rates of agreement between the trainees were similar across both groups, and most of the concordance rates can be characterized as excellent. Overall, these results suggest that trainees may learn how to code R-PAS variables with similar reliability levels whether or not they had prior CS knowledge.