The Interactive Effects of Sales Force Controls on Salespeople Behaviors and Customer Outcomes

Although studies have examined the antecedents and consequences of sales force control (SFC) systems, little research investigates how different SFC elements interact or work together to affect salespeople behaviors and customer outcomes. Drawing on a diverse literature, this study hypothesizes interactive influence of three formal control elements (i.e., output, activity, and capability) on two customer-directed sales behaviors (i.e., problem solving and opportunism), which subsequently affect customer relationship outcomes. Using data collected from matched business-to-business buyer–seller dyads in China, the authors find that output and activity controls reduce both problem solving and opportunism when used together. Output and capability controls synergistically enhance problem solving and reduce opportunism, whereas activity and capability controls interact to reduce problem solving and increase opportunism. In addition, sales behaviors have significant effects on customer relationship satisfaction, which in turn affects customer share of wallet.     

Congruence in Sales Force Evaluations: Relation to Sales Force Perceptions of Conflict and Ambiguity

Abstract

This research examined the relationship between salespersons' perceptions of role conflict and role ambiquity from various sources and the degree of agreement between salespeople and sales managers on salesperson performance. Three sources of role ambiguity were found to explain the most variance in performance congruence. Implications for management are discussed.     

A Contingency Approach to Specializing an Industrial Sales Force

Abstract

Psychographic, sociocultural and functional specialization are three alternative forms of deploying sales forces currently used by firms in combination with the traditional bases of specialization. Despite their usage, these forms have received little recognition and acceptance in the marketing literature. Because there is no single best form of specialization for all firms, this article proffers a contingency model of specialization whereby the optimal form(s) of specialization is dependent on the accurate analysis of twelve situational variables.     

Prioritizing Sales Force Decision Areas for Productivity Improvements using a Core Sales Response Function

The time and budgets that managers can devote to enhancing sales force productivity are limited, so sales managers must decide where it is worthwhile to invest in productivity improvements—to improve salespeople’s current effort allocation, realign territories, enhance sales force sizing, or provide more training. To prioritize these alternatives, management must assess the outcomes of investments on the basis of a common metric—profit. This paper proposes to estimate a core sales response function that allows for quantifying the profits derived from each possible action and demonstrates the benefits of this approach through an actual case study.     

The Role of Top Management in Developing a Customer-Oriented Sales Force

A national random sample of industrial salespeople was surveyed to examine the effects of salespeople’s perceptions of top management long-term orientation, top management emphasis, and top management risk aversion on customer-oriented selling behaviors. The results indicated that perceived top management long-term orientation had a significantly positive effect on perceived top management emphasis and a significantly negative effect on perceived top management risk aversion. In turn, perceived top management emphasis positively affected customer-oriented selling, whereas perceived top management risk aversion did not affect customer-oriented selling. The study underscores the importance of salespeople’s perceptions of top management factors for implementing the marketing concept. The managerial implications of these findings are discussed and several directions for future research are proposed.     

Using a Self-Management Intervention to Increase Compliance in Children With ASD

This two-study series examined the effectiveness of self-management in increase compliance with parental requests. Three boys diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder and their parents participated. The intervention involved self-monitoring combined with parent-delivered reinforcement. A multiple baseline design was used. The intervention was successful in increasing rates of compliance and reducing problem behavior in training and generalization settings with each participant. Social validity was high and treatment integrity data indicated that the intervention could be readily implemented by parents. Study 2 also provided evidence of a strong treatment effect for the self-management beyond a small effect for effective instructional delivery.     

Career Commitment as a Predictor of Behavioral Outcomes

Abstract

Few researchers have examined career commitment in a systematic fashion. The present longitudinal study used Rusbult and Farrell's (1983) commitment scale in two ways: (a) as an independent variable for predicting (after an interval of one week) several behavioral outcomes and (b) as a dependent variable predicted by various demographic measures. Data collected from 73 university students in Israel showed that none of the demographics correlated with career commitment, but the latter predicted several future behaviors including the number of times respondents met with their instructors and hours spent in written work. The limitations of a short time interval as well as some of the unique aspects of the Israeli educational system are discussed.     

Behavioral similarity as a reinforcer for preschool children

Three experiments evaluated whether behavioral similarity provided by an adult could serve as a reinforcer for the modelling behavior of four preschoolers. In each experiment, sessions consisted of two kinds of trials: (1) experimenter-modelled trials, when the child's imitation of modelled motor responses was reinforced with praise and tokens, and (2) child-modelled trials when experimenter imitation of child-modelled responses was contingent upon the child's modelling one of three alternative responses: operation of a ball, horn, or clicker. Experiment I showed that the children consistently modelled whichever responses the experimenter imitated. Experiment II determined whether that performance was due to differences in the amount of experimenter behavior following imitated versus nonimitated child models or to experimenter imitation. Neither reducing nor increasing the amount of experimenter behavior following the children's nonimitated models altered their modelling of imitated responses. Experiment III evaluated whether experimenter imitation of child models was a reinforcer because the child's imitative responses were reinforced on experimenter-modelled trials. In Experiment III, the children's nonimitation of experimenter-models was reinforced with praise and tokens on a schedule of differential reinforcement of other behavior, yet they continued to model experimenter-imitated responses on child-modelled trials. These results indicate behavioral similarity was reinforcing, though no conditioning history through which it acquired that function was demonstrated.     

Increasing Job Performance and Decreasing Salesperson Propensity to Leave: An Examination of an Asian Sales Force

Given the rapid expansion of the geographic territory that today’s firms compete in, firms without a strong understanding of the markets/countries where they conduct business will experience higher levels of employee turnover and lower levels of employee performance. When high levels of employee turnover and low levels of employee performance exist, firm profitability will be reduced and the potential for failure within the given markets will increase. Considering the level of firm interest in conducting business in Asian markets, we examine methods to reduce employee propensity to leave and increase job performance using a sample of 213 Korean salespeople. Results from the study indicate that (1) only organizational commitment was found to directly increase performance and decrease propensity to leave, (2) perceived organizational support was found to increase performance, and (3) emotional exhaustion was found to directly increase employee propensity to leave. Given the findings of this study, firms are provided with insights into managing turnover and increasing performance, which can aid firms in being potentially more successful within the Asian marketplace.     

The Driving Behavior Survey as a Measure of Behavioral Stress Responses to MVA-Related PTSD

Numerous treatments are available that address the core symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, there are a number of related behavioral stress responses that are not assessed with PTSD measures, yet these behavioral stress responses affect quality of life. The goal of the current study was to investigate whether a recently developed measure of behavioral stress response, the Driving Behavior Survey (DBS), was sensitive to change associated with treatment among a group of participants diagnosed with PTSD. The DBS indexes anxious driving behavior, which is frequently observed among individuals with motor vehicle accident-related PTSD. Participants (n = 40) were racially diverse adults (M age = 40.78, 63% women) who met diagnostic criteria for motor vehicle accident-related PTSD. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses indicated that participants who were assigned to a brief, exposure-based intervention displayed significant reductions on the DBS subscales relative to participants assigned to the wait-list control condition (r = .41–.43). Moreover, mediational analyses indicated that the observed reductions on the DBS subscales were not better accounted for by reductions in PTSD. Taken together, these findings suggest that the DBS subscales are sensitive to changes associated with PTSD treatment and can be used to augment outcome assessment in PTSD treatment trials.     

The Role of Individual Differences and External Variables in a Test of the Sufficiency of Fishbein's Model to Explain Behavioral Intentions to Conserve Water

The sufficiency of fishbein's attitude model was tested with respect to behavioral intentions to conserve water. Regression analysis showed subjective norms (SN) to be the variable most highly correlated with intentions. It was also found that, contrary to the model, SN and evaluative attitudes (Aact) did not adequately mediate all the variation in intentions accounted for by the variables included in this analysis. Age was found to be an important external variable in explaining water conservation intentions, The equations of the models which predict SN and Aact were also analvzed. Analysis of regressions for dichotomized groups revealed strong individual differences in regression equations. Age, along with SN and Aact, was found to be an important variable in accounting for individual differences. The findings are discussed in relation to the sufficiency of Fishbein's model and the role of individual differences in Understanding water conservation intentions.     

Behavioral contrast and inhibitory stimulus control as related to extended training

Pigeons received discrimination training in which the presence of a white field was correlated with variable-interval reinforcement and the presence of a monochromatic field was correlated with extinction. Responses during the negative stimulus prolonged its duration. Five experimental groups each received a different number of discrimination sessions up to 70 sessions. The last session was followed by a wavelength generalization test. The control group was tested both before and after four discrimination sessions. Responding to the positive training stimulus was enhanced in all groups by the discrimination procedures. This enhancement tended to decrease over sessions in some animals but it never disappeared in others. Responding to the test stimuli preceding discrimination training was minimal around the negative stimulus and increased in either direction away from that wavelength. Responding to the test stimuli was not systematically related to the amount of discrimination training.     

Coordination of Grip Configurations as a Function of Force Output

In this investigation, the authors examined the coordination and control of force production by the digits of the hand as a function of criterion force level and grip configuration. Each adult participant (N = 6: 3 men and 3 women) was required to place the thumb and a finger (or fingers) upon load cells that were fixed to a grasping apparatus that was clamped to a table. In the task, participants had to match a criterion continuous constant total force level displayed on a computer screen. There were 10 trials at each grip configuration and criterion force level combination on each of 3 consecutive days. The results showed that (a) different grip configurations minimized error at each force level; (b) there was a specific digit pairing within a given grip configuration that produced the highest correlation of force output; (c) the correlation between the force output of digits generally increased at higher force levels; (d) error was reduced at each force level and grip configuration over the practice period; and (e) the organization of the force output of each digit varied as a function of digit, force level, grip configuration, and practice. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that coordination of the digits in prehension is reflective of an adaptive, task-specific solution that is modified with practice.     

Behavioral contrast as a function of the temporal location of reinforcement

Pigeons were trained on a multiple variable-interval variable-interval schedule of reinforcement. One component was then changed to a variation of a fixed-interval schedule in which the same rate of reinforcement was obtained as previously but the location of the reinforcer was fixed within the component. The effects of different temporal locations were compared. An increase in response rate for the unchanged variable-interval component (behavioral contrast) occurred when the reinforcer was located in the middle or at the end of the FI component, but response suppression occurred when it was located at the beginning of the component. The pattern of results cannot be explained by any previous theories of contrast. The overall response rates, and the pattern of local rates within the components, were consistent with the hypothesis that the major determinant of the contrast effect was the transition to a lower reinforcement rate following the unchanged component.