The Effects of Sex of Subject and Sex of Partner on Interruptions

Sex differences in interruption behavior were examined using the Kraemer-Jacklin (1979) procedure to isolate and test the effects of sex of subject, sex of partner, and their interaction while controlling for between partner correlation. The results of the study were three. First, men did not interrupt more than women and women did not get interrupted more than men. Instead, there were more opposite-sex interruptions, both male-female and female-male, than same-sex interruptions, both female-female and male-male. Second, interruptions were asymmetrically distributed in both same-sex and opposite-sex dyads. However, in opposite-sex dyads males did not interrupt females more than females interrupted males. Third, women did not have less assertive behaviors interrupted; they did not interrupt less assertively, nor did they respond less assertively to interruptions.     

The Relationship of Clinicians' Values to Therapy Outcome Ratings

The purpose of this study was to explore the interpersonal values of a sample of experienced clinicians. Clinician ratings of hypothetical, value-based therapy outcome vignettes were also investigated. Consistent with previous values research, clinicians showed greater endorsement of independence and lower endorsement of conformity in the Survey of Interpersonal Values. Clinicians' own values were positively correlated with their outcome ratings on the conformity dimension. Discussion is made of factors that may influence whether clinicians reinforce particular values in therapeutic contexts.     

Attributions for Performance on Luck and Skill Tasks: Effects of Outcome,Sex of Performer,and Sex of Subject

Attributions for and evaluations of a stimulus persons's preformance were assessed as a function of the sex of the stimulus person, sex of the observer, type of task (luck or skill), and outcomes (success or failure). An interaction between type of task and sex of stimulus person was expected, with observers expecting males to perform better than females on the skill task because of ability, and females to perform better than males on the luck task because of task ease. The results provided partial support for the predicted interaction. Task difficulty was more relevant for females on the luck task than for males. Effort was rated as more important for females than for males when the success was on the skill task. All of the ratings were influenced by the task-type manipulation.     

决策任务类型与结果框架对风险决策的影响

本研究考察生命和金钱问题下,获得和损失框架中决策任务类型对风险决策的影响。采用2（任务领域：生命、金钱）×2（决策任务类型：经验、描述）×2（结果框架：获得、损失）被试间设计,使用卡方检验及logistic回归分析后发现：生命和金钱问题下,个体在直接给出方案可能结果的描述性决策中仅表现出损失框架下的风险偏好;在通过自主查看方案可能结果的经验性决策中未发现结果框架作用。描述−经验差距一致性存在于生命和金钱问题中。     

情绪效价与面孔类型对幼儿无意视盲的影响

幼儿对不同的情绪面孔图片存在不同的注意偏向,考察情绪效价与面孔类型对幼儿无意视盲的影响,可以帮助我们进一步认识幼儿对情绪面孔的注意偏向。本研究采用静态无意视盲的实验范式,通过2（面孔类型：符号化卡通、真人）×2（情绪效价：积极、消极）被试间完全随机设计,考察了111名幼儿（62.5±3.6个月,男生60名）在无意注意条件下对不同情绪效价和不同类型面孔的觉察情况。结果表明：（1）幼儿对积极情绪面孔的觉察率显著高于消极情绪面孔;（2）符号化卡通面孔与真人面孔的整体觉察率不存在显著差异;（3）积极情绪面孔中符号化卡通面孔的觉察率高于真人面孔。综上,情绪效价对无意视盲的影响会基于面孔类型的不同而不同,幼儿对卡通积极情绪面孔有更显著的注意偏向。     

情绪效价与面孔类型对幼儿无意视盲的影响

幼儿对不同的情绪面孔图片存在不同的注意偏向,考察情绪效价与面孔类型对幼儿无意视盲的影响,可以帮助我们进一步认识幼儿对情绪面孔的注意偏向。本研究采用静态无意视盲的实验范式,通过2（面孔类型：符号化卡通、真人）×2（情绪效价：积极、消极）被试间完全随机设计,考察了111名幼儿（62.5±3.6个月,男生60名）在无意注意条件下对不同情绪效价和不同类型面孔的觉察情况。结果表明：（1）幼儿对积极情绪面孔的觉察率显著高于消极情绪面孔;（2）符号化卡通面孔与真人面孔的整体觉察率不存在显著差异;（3）积极情绪面孔中符号化卡通面孔的觉察率高于真人面孔。综上,情绪效价对无意视盲的影响会基于面孔类型的不同而不同,幼儿对卡通积极情绪面孔有更显著的注意偏向。     

Self-Ratings and Projected Ratings of Sex Role Attitudes

To ascertain the veridicality of projected attitudes toward sex role behavior, 74 male and 74 female undergraduates filled out the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS) using three different targets: self, typical female classmate, and typical male classmate. Analyses of variance on respondents' total AWS scores and on the six AWS subscale scores showed significant interactions between sex of respondent and sex of target for all seven variables. Since the directions of the interactions were not consistent across subscales, the results indicated the methodological necessity of using measurements which examine a variety of specific subclasses of sex role behaviors (rather than using unidimensional scale or total test scores) when stereotypic sex role attitudes are sought. In general, both sexes were found to have a fairly accurate perception of women's attitudes, but both sexes consistently perceived the typical male as more conservative than the male self-ratings justified.     

Sex Differences,Sex Roles,and Projection on the TAT: Matching Stimulus to Examinee Gender

We examined the assumption that on the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) examinees identify more with stimulus characters of the same sex as themselves and therefore produce more projective material when tested with these gender matched cards. Repeated measures analyses of variance and t tests showed no increase in projection as a result of matching gender or sex role of subject to card stimulus. Results do not support the clinical utility of the separate male and female sets of TAT cards.     

Fears about Seeking Therapeutic Help: The Effect of Sex of Subject, Sex of Professional, and Title of Professional

96 subjects were asked to imagine that they had gone to their GP for help with an emotional problem. The subjects were further asked to imagine that the GP had referred them to either a male or female counsellor, clinical psychologist or psychiatrist. Whilst in role, subjects were asked to rate their concern about 15 possible fears of therapy, and to indicate their preference for a male or female therapist. There was little support for the hypothesis that female subjects would have lower fear ratings than male subjects. Equivocal support was found for the hypothesis that there would be an overall preference for female therapists. Results partially supported the hypothesis that fear ratings would be highest with respect to psychiatrists; the interaction of the sex of subject and the title of professional variables indicated that this was particularly so when the psychiatrist was female. The implications for counselling are briefly discussed, with regard to preparing clients for therapy.     

The Talking Platypus Phenomenon: Competency Ratings as a Function of Sex and Professional Status

Ratings of vocational competence, marriageability, and interpersonal success were made by male and female subjects of a stimulus person described in a one-page, single-spaced biography. The sex and status of the stimulus person in the biography were manipulated such that for each biography half the subjects were led to believe it was about a male, half were led to believe it was about a female, half were led to believe that the individual was an attorney, and half were led to believe that the individual was a paralegal worker. The results indicated that both men and women perceived the female attorney as being the most vocationally competent. It was proposed that the increased ratings of vocational competency for the female attorney were a function of her performance being perceived as having occurred within a context replete with the types of constraints that usually obviate the degree of success she achieved. It was also suggested that the finding concerning vocational competence exemplifies the talking platypus phenomenon; that is, when an individual achieves a level of success not anticipated, his/her achievement tends to be magnified rather than diminished. After all, it matters little what the platypus says, the wonder is that it can say anything at all.     

Choice of Therapeutic Approaches as a Function of Sex of Subject, Type of Problem, and Sex and Title of Helper

A study was carried out using 96 subjects to discover how their preferences for four therapeutic approaches varied as a function of their sex, the type of problem they were asked to imagine they had (intimate or work/academic), and sex and title (counsellor or psychotherapist) of the professional from whom they would seek help. The four approaches used were: psychoanalytic therapy, cognitive-behavioural therapy, humanistic therapy, and a 'common-sense' approach consisting of responses typically given by non-professional helpers (e.g. friends and relatives). The results showed that the cognitive-behavioural approach was preferred overall, closely followed by the humanistic approach; the common-sense approach and psychoanalytic therapy were given the lowest ratings. However, interactions showed the picture to be more complex than this: women preferred female helpers, with men having no particular preferences; and the type of approach subjects preferred depended to some extent on the type of problem they had and the title of the helper consulted. The results suggest that counselling centres should be staffed with helpers of both sexes and differing theoretical backgrounds, so as to give clients as wide a choice of therapeutic help as possible.     

Ratings of Emotional Response to Pictorial Stimuli: Positive and Negative Affect Dimensions

The purpose of this study was to investigate the structure of emotional responses to pictorial stimuli within the affective space defined by orthogonal dimensions of positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA). College student participants (N = 151) viewed 60 color photographic slides from the International Affective Picture System (Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1995) and rated their emotional responses to each slide using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Consistent with prediction, affective reactions to pleasant slides were characterized as high in PA, and low in NA. Unpleasant slides produced elevations on the NA scale, but contrary to expectation, also produced elevated ratings of PA, with the magnitude of PA scale scores increasing systematically with NA scale scores. The results suggest an interesting divergence between the structure of pictorially elicited affective reactions and that of ad hoc mood states. Directions for future research are discussed in relation to the unique properties of the slide viewing paradigm.     

Sex Bias at Work: The Effects of Attentional and Memory Demands on Performance Ratings of Men and Women1

The present study examined the impact of attentional and memory demands on work performance ratings accorded men and women in traditionally male jobs. Of interest was whether sex discrimination would abate in the face of individuating and job-relevant work behavior even when the demands likely to be faced in actual work settings were taken into account. Two hundred and two subjects read a vignette depicting the work behavior of a male or female police officer and then rated the individual's work performance. The attentional demands imposed on subjects while reading the vignette and the amount of time elapsed prior to issuing the performance ratings were systematically varied. As predicted, men were evaluated more favorably than women when raters were faced with an additional task requiring attention and time pressures were made salient. Only when subjects were able to carefully allocate all of their attentional resources did sex bias in work performance ratings abate. Memory demands had no effects on work performance ratings. Gender-related work characterizations paralleled the performance ratings, providing support for the idea that sex stereotypes mediate discrimination in performance appraisal judgments. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings, as well as suggestions for future research, are discussed.     

Remembrance of Eyewitness Testimony: Effects of Emotional Content,Self‐Relevance,and Emotional Tone1

This experiment concerned the effects of emotional content, self‐relevance, and emotional tone of testimony on memory. Eyewitness accounts of 4 events were constructed that systematically differed in emotionality and self‐relevance. The testimony, captured on videotape, was expressed with or without negative emotion. After viewing one of the videotaped accounts, participants were administered cued‐recall and recognition memory tests. Significant main effects indicated that participants best remembered testimony that was emotional in content, self‐relevant, and negatively expressed. Although emotional content and self‐relevance interacted to affect state anxiety, the latter did not mediate memory effects. Overall, significant gender differences in state anxiety but not memory emerged. Implications for understanding the influence of emotion on juror memory are discussed.     

Context Effects in Performance Evaluation: The Impact of Ratee Sex and Performance Level on Performance Ratings and Behavioral Recall

We extend the research on context effects in performance evaluation by examining the impact of ratee sex and context performance level as moderators of context effects in performance ratings and in the recall of performance information. Subjects (N= 269) rated the performance of an average performer (male or female) alone or following a low or high performing context (male or female). We found significant differences in the magnitude of contrast effects for an average target ratee as a function of both target ratee sex and performance level. These differences were found for both performance ratings and the evaluative content of performance information recalled.     

The Potential Effect of Instrument Titles on Teacher Ratings of Child Behavior

Abstract

The present study investigated the possible effect of instrument titles on prospective teacher ratings of child behavior utilizing a posttest-only control group experimental design. Though statistical analyses revealed no main effects for label (label vs. no label) or major focus of study (regular education vs. special education), all groups rated a normal child's behavior in the clinically elevated range on several dependent variables. Implications tor those professionals in the fields of education and psychology are discussed along with the need for additional research in the area.