Flow state in self-paced and externally-paced performance contexts: An examination of the flow model

ObjectivesKimiecik and Stein's (1992) flow model proposed that personal and situational factors affect the experience of flow. Singer, 1988, Singer, 2000 argued that different mental processes underlie self-initiated and reactive performances. The first purpose of this study was to examine main and interaction effects between imagery use and confidence on flow state in different performance contexts. The second purpose was to assess main and interaction effects between flow state, imagery, and confidence on self-paced service and externally-paced groundstroke performance in tennis.DesignThis field study used a repeated-measures design.MethodA pilot study was conducted to inform the set up of the two performance contexts. Flow states were assessed on two separate occasions, (a) for the service performance, and (b) for the groundstroke performance. A total of 60 junior tennis athletes completed imagery and confidence measures before the field test.ResultsA significant interaction between imagery and confidence was found for flow state in the groundstroke but not in the service task. No significant interaction effects were found for performance outcome. Flow state significantly predicted groundstroke performance, and imagery and confidence predicted service performance.ConclusionsThe examination of flow in different performance contexts is challenging. Imagery and confidence are central to the experience of flow. Flow state appeared to be more important for the externally-paced than self-paced task. The relationship between flow and performance is complex, which requires the conceptual expansion of Kimiecik and Stein's (1992) flow model.     

Cognitive aging and flight performances in general aviation pilots

ABSTRACT

Unlike professional pilots who are limited by the FAA's age rule, no age limit is defined in general aviation. Our overall goal was to examine how age-related cognitive decline impacts piloting performance and weather-related decision-making. This study relied on three components: cognitive assessment (in particular executive functioning), pilot characteristics (age and flight experience), and flight performance. The results suggest that in comparison to chronological age, cognitive assessment is a better criterion to predict the flight performance, in particular because of the inter-individual variability of aging impact on cognitive abilities and the beneficial effect of flight experience.     

Exploring the “clutch” in clutch performance: A qualitative investigation of the experience of pressure in successful performance

ObjectivesThe term “clutch” is colloquially used to describe important or crucial situations in sport, with clutch performance referring to successful performances during these pressurised circumstances. Positioning the clutch as an objective, situational variable, however, may not account for the athletes' subjective appraisal of such situations. Accordingly, this study aimed to explore athletes' perceptions of clutch situations, and further, how these perceptions influenced their performance.MethodSixteen athletes (M_age = 26.88 years) participated in event-focused, semi-structured interviews soon after a clutch performance (M = 4 days later). Data were analysed utilising reflexive thematic analysis.ResultsFour themes were generated: (1) the clutch involves situational and subjective factors, suggesting that the appraisal of the clutch is influenced by situational and subjective components; (2) the perception of the clutch comes and goes, suggesting that there may be multiple, fluctuating episodes of the clutch within an event; (3) pressure affects performance, and performance affects pressure, suggesting that the appraisal of pressure was perceived to impact performance, and that performance also influenced appraisal of pressure; and, (4) experience of anxiety during the clutch is varied, suggesting that the experience of anxiety is not inherent to clutch performance.ConclusionsThe clutch has traditionally been considered an objective, situational variable. This study suggests, however, that the clutch relies upon the athlete appraising pressure in response to these situational variables, which may not always occur. Further, other subjective factors may increase the appraisal of pressure, suggesting that the clutch cannot solely be considered as a situational variable.     

“Eddie would(n't) go!” perceptual-cognitive expertise in surfing

ObjectivesThe goal of the present research was to investigate the decision making skills of surfers as a function of surfing experience.DesignWe used a between-subject quasi-experimental design.MethodParticipants (N = 76) with different levels of surfing expertise were asked to indicate via a button press which waves they would try to catch in a computer-based video decision-making task that presented videos of approaching waves.ResultsThe quality of participants' decisions corresponded in a linear manner with the amount of surfing experience, i.e. the more experience a surfer had, the better they were able to decide which waves were surfable and which waves were not. Specifically, more experienced surfers were superior at deciding which waves not to surf.ConclusionsWe provided first evidence that highly experienced surfers possess a cognitive advantage compared to less experienced surfers or a non-surfing control group by being better able to distinguish between surfable and non surfable waves. The results are discussed within the expert performance approach as being supportive of the notion that surfing experience led to perceptual-cognitive adaptations that allow surfers to pick the right waves.     

Visual attention in adolescents: Facilitating effects of sport expertise and acute physical exercise

ObjectivesThis study investigated visual attention of adolescent orienteers and physically active adolescents non-practising orienteering both at rest and under acute sub-maximal exercise. It was verified whether the practice of orienteering facilitates the development of visual attentional abilities and whether orienteers, who are used to simultaneously handle physiological and cognitive-attentional loads, may better profit than non-orienteers from the beneficial effects of sub-maximal physical load on processing speed.MethodsBoth the focusing of attention at foveal and parafoveal locations and the orienting of attention at peripheral locations were investigated. In two discriminative reaction time (RT) experiments, a cue of varying size was presented centrally or peripherally and followed by a compound stimulus with local and global target features. The stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA) varied between a short and a long interval.ResultsIn both experiments, adolescent orienteers and non-practisers showed different patterns of attentional effects. Adolescent orienteers were more similar to young adults in the attentional performance, being better able than non-practisers to perform complex attentional operations involving the intentional zooming of attention in the central visual field and the orienting of the attentional focus in the peripheral visual field. Also, both orienteers and non-orienteers speeded up their performance during exercise, but this facilitation effect was more pronounced for orienteers, who are probably skilled in directing the available resources to task demands.ConclusionsOur results suggest that cognitive expertise represents a key factor in sports that accelerates the development of visual attention and enhances the facilitating effects of physical exercise on attentional performance.     

A Source Of Metacomprehension Inaccuracy

In the present study we examined the basis of students' self-evaluations of comprehension performance. We manipulated text difficulty to maximize performance variability across reading trials and to minimize the likelihood of giving similar performance evaluations across trials. Students were allowed to acquire task (prior) experience across nine reading trials. A path model analysis was then used to examine the basis of students' self-evaluations within and across trials 10, 11, and 12. The results showed that despite nine learning trials, students did not assess performance based on each individual trial (proximal experience). Rather, self-evaluations were influenced by prior trials (distal experience). Thus, immediate self-evaluations are not assessments of immediate performance but assessments of generalized self-representations of ability formed from distal experience.     

Decision-related action orientation predicts police officers' shooting performance under pressure

Background and Objectives: We aimed to test whether police officers’ trait self-control strength decreases negative effects of high pressure (HP) on state anxiety, shooting behavior, and shooting performance. Design and Methods: Forty-two officers performed a shooting test under both high and low-pressure (LP) conditions. Self-control strength was assessed with the decision-related action orientation (AOD) scale of the Action Control Scale (ACS-90). Effects of AOD on perceived anxiety, heart rate, shooting time, and shot accuracy were estimated and controlled for those of other individual difference measures (i.e. age, police working experience, trait anxiety, and threat-related action orientation). Results: After controlling for baseline values in the LP condition as well as the other individual difference measures, AOD significantly predicted shot accuracy in the HP condition. Conclusions: Results suggest that trait self-control strength in the form of AOD helps officers cope with anxiety and maintain perceptual-motor performance under HP.     

Using simulation to assess the ability of youth to safely operate tractors

BackgroundOperating farm tractors is dangerous for children. Recent studies document mismatches between children and physical requirements for operating tractors. The role of cognition has not been studied, because such research conducted in real-life situations places youth at risk. The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and psychometric properties of a simulated virtual tractor environment to examine how children’s age and development impacts safe tractor operations.MethodsFifty-five male youth ages 10–17 living/working on farms with experience driving tractors tested the virtual environment and simulation modules. Six adult male farmers were recruited as a reference group to compare youth performance with adults.ResultsThe simulation had adequate face validity with realism scores reported between “somewhat” and “quite” realistic. Internal reliability of the simulation was excellent, as demonstrated by highly significant intraclass correlations for key indicators of performance (speeds and hazard clearances). While there was some evidence for construct validity, as indicated by trends in performance across the age groups, findings were mixed.ConclusionStudy findings support using simulation for assessing the abilities of children to safely operate tractors.     

Examining the moderating effects of time on task and task complexity on the within person self-efficacy and performance relationship

ObjectivesThe study examined two moderating variables that may influence the direction of the effect of self-efficacy upon performance, namely; time spent on task and task complexity.DesignMultilevel analysis was conducted to examine within person and between group relationships.MethodEighty eight novice golfers putted in 4 sessions over a period of 2 days (completing 800 putts in total). Each session contained 10 trials of 20 putts. The golfers were split into 2 conditions; a stable task condition where task requirements remained constant across time and a dynamic task condition, where task complexity changed across time.ResultsIn early learning (i.e., the first 10 trials) results revealed a slight negative effect between self-efficacy and subsequent performance. However, across the 40 trials self-efficacy had a positive effect upon subsequent performance. Further, there was a significant task condition (stable vs. dynamic) interaction. In the easy task condition, self-efficacy showed a slight (but non-significant) positive effect upon performance. However, in the dynamic learning condition, self-efficacy had a positive and significant effect upon subsequent performance.ConclusionPrevious tests of the within person self-efficacy relationship tend to limit learning to 10 trials or less. The study is the first to examine the reciprocal relationship between self-efficacy and performance as a result of task experience (i.e., time spent on the task) and task complexity simultaneously. Positive effects emerged as a result of extended time learning the task and by varying the degree of task complexity whilst learning.     

Interactive Effects of Multicultural Experiences and Openness to Experience on Creative Potential

Extensiveness of multicultural experiences and Openness to Experience were used to predict European American undergraduates' performance on two measures of creative potential: (a) generation of unusual uses of garbage bags and (b) retrieval of nonprototypical or normatively inaccessible exemplars in the conceptual domain of occupation. The results showed that having extensive multicultural experiences predicted better performance on both measures of creative potential only among participants who were open to experience. Among those who were not open, having more extensive multicultural experiences was associated with a lower level of creative potential. Implications of these findings for promoting creativity in schools are discussed.     

An Investigation into the Effects of Hypnosis on Basketball Performance

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of hypnosis on set- and jump-shooting performance among male collegiate basketball players. A single-subject ABA research design combined with a procedure that monitors the internal experience of the participants (Wollman, 1986) was implemented. The results indicated that all three participants increased their mean jump- and set- shooting performance from baseline to intervention, with all three participants returning to baseline levels of performance postintervention phase. Finally, each participant reported they had felt the intervention had increased sensations they associated with peak performance. These results support the hypothesis that a hypnosis intervention can improve jump- and set-shooting performance and increase feelings and cognitions that are associated with peak performance.     

Perfectionism and achievement goals in athletes: Relations with approach and avoidance orientations in mastery and performance goals

ObjectivesChallenging views that perfectionism is a maladaptive factor in sport and that it is related to a preoccupation with performance goals and a neglect of mastery goals, the present article argues that perfectionism in athletes is not generally maladaptive, but shows differential relationships with mastery and performance goals depending on which facets of perfectionism are regarded.MethodGoing beyond the dichotomous achievement goal framework, two studies with N=204 high school athletes and N=147 university student are presented investigating how two facets of perfectionism—striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection [Stoeber, J., Otto, K., Pescheck, E., Becker, C., & Stoll, O. (2007). Perfectionism and competitive anxiety in athletes: Differentiating striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 959–969.]—relate to athletes’ achievement goals.DesignStudy 1 employed a cross-sectional correlational design, Study 2 a longitudinal correlational design.ResultsFollowing the trichotomous achievement goal framework, Study 1 found striving for perfection to be positively related to mastery and performance-approach goals, whereas negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals and inversely to mastery goals. Following the 2×2 framework, Study 2 found striving for perfection to be positively related to mastery-approach and performance-approach goals whereas negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals. Moreover, negative reactions to imperfection predicted residual increases in mastery-avoidance goals over 3 months.ConclusionsIt is concluded that striving for perfection in athletes is associated with an adaptive pattern of achievement goals whereas negative reactions to imperfection are associated with a maladaptive pattern. Thus, striving for perfection in sport may be adaptive in athletes who do not experience strong negative reactions when performance is less than perfect.     

The rise and fall of executive functions in high-level football players

IntroductionExecutive functions are higher-level cognitive functions. Despite being relevant to many aspects of everyday life, it is contentious whether executive functions are important for high performing athletes. Executive functions increase throughout the career of an athlete, yet it remains unknown what are the main contributors. Therefore, this study examined the effect of age and experience on executive functions in a cohort of high performing football players.MethodsData were collected over three seasons, resulting in a mixed longitudinal sample of 1018 observations in 343 male players (1–5 observations/player, age: 10.34–34.72 years; playing experience: 5–22 years) from the U12-Senior age groups of a professional German football club. Players participated in four cognitive tasks aimed at measuring higher-level cognitive functioning: a precued choice reaction-time task, a stop-signal reaction-time task, a sustained attention task, and a multiple-object tracking task, from which a total of eight dependent variables related to response time and/or accuracy were derived.ResultsLinear and non-linear mixed effects regressions were used to investigate the relationship between age, experience and executive functions. A second order polynomial revealed that, generally, a negatively accelerated curve best described the relationship between age, experience and executive functions. An increasingly smaller difference in executive functioning was generally observed between subsequent age groups, with a performance plateau evident around adulthood (~21 years old). Age and experience only explained a very low to moderate proportion of the variance in executive functions (marginal explained variance ranged between 2 and 57%). A significant age by field position interaction effect was only observed for the sustained attention task’s accuracy and response time components (p < 0.001).ConclusionsBoth age and experience showed a negatively accelerated relationship with executive functions in youth football players, and this relationship was generally field position-independent. These negatively accelerated curves seem to reflect those observed in general populations, where a plateau phase in the development of higher-level cognitive functioning is also observed around 21 years, reflecting the maturation of the central nervous system in normally developing individuals. Therefore, this study challenges the assumption surrounding the use and validity of executive functions as a measure of football performance potential in high performing athletes.     

A Bayesian approach to exploring expertise and putting success in adolescent and young adult golfers

ObjectivesPutting behaviour was examined to explore if age influenced performance and the development of motor and perceptual-cognitive expertise during late adolescence and early adulthood. We also examined if motor control and perceptual-cognitive expertise was related to performance on a representative putting task.MethodTwenty elite golfers (15 male; 17–24 years old; mean handicap of 0.5) completed eight straight and eight sloped putts at two distances (8ft/2.44m and 15ft/4.57m), on an indoor golf surface. Participants wore an eye tracker whilst putting and putting performance was assessed via putts holed and eye-movement behaviour, examining Quiet Eye (QE, the duration of the final fixation on the ball). A baseline profile for each participant was created using kinematic stroke data (collected using SAM PuttLab), average putts per round, greens in regulation and current practice hours (subjective self-report measures).ResultsBayesian statistical analysis revealed ‘moderate’ evidence that age and baseline kinematic factors did not influence putting success rates. Eye movement data revealed ‘moderate’ evidence that i) successful performance was associated with less variability in QE duration and ii) extended periods of QE were associated with a decline in performance. Previous experience and current skill level were ruled out as potential confounds.ConclusionOur findings reveal that performance and perceptual-cognitive expertise, did not improve with age. We suggest that post 18 years, age should not be considered a factor in talent development programmes for golf putting. We discuss the benefits of adopting a Bayesian approach and suggest future studies employ longitudinal designs to examine changes in expertise over time.     

Theory of mind ability in high socially anxious individuals

Background/Objectives: Research has demonstrated an association between social anxiety and impaired Theory of Mind (ToM). We assess whether ToM deficits occur even at a subclinical level of social anxiety and whether group differences in ToM performance are consistent with interpretation bias. We also explore potential reasons as to why socially anxious individuals may perform differently on ToM tasks.

Methods/Design: Undergraduate participants high (HSA; n?=?78) and low (LSA; n?=?35) in social anxiety completed a task of ToM decoding, the Reading the Mind in the Eyes (MIE), a task of ToM reasoning, the Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition (MASC), and a post-task questionnaire about their experience completing the MASC.

Results: HSAs performed marginally worse than LSAs on the MIE on neutrally valenced trials, and their pattern of errors may be consistent with a negative interpretation bias. HSAs and LSAs did not differ overall in performance on the MASC, though HSAs reported experiencing more confusion and distress than LSAs during the task, and this distress was associated with more MASC errors for HSA participants only. These results provide insight into the nature of ToM ability in socially anxious individuals and highlight important avenues for future research.