Depressed mood: The role of negative thoughts,self-consciousness,and sex role stereotypes

Research typically finds that depression is twice as common among women as among men. This may relate to differences in socialization that result in different emotions, cognitions, and coping reactions. Sex-role stereotypes, employment and marital status, and differential social pressures may also be significant in making women more vulnerable to the development of depression. Women may have less decision-making power, face more adverse life events, and have limited access to resources, which may lead to feelings of helplessness and low self-esteem. Low self-esteem and negative cognitions about the self in turn may be proximal factors predictive of negative mood. Additionally, women may be more prone to ruminative self-focus rather than active coping, a significant risk factor for depression. This study examined individual predictors of depressed mood for each sex, including coping, self-esteem, negative thoughts, self-consciousness (rumination), as well as social factors such as the endorsement of sex-role stereotypes and decision-making power in the family. Results indicated that social factors were not related to depressed mood in either sex, but were related to coping styles and self-esteem. Depressed mood was associated with individual characteristics, such as avoidant coping styles, social anxiety for women, and ruminative self-focus for men. Regression analysis showed that coping through denial and negative thoughts explained depressed mood, and the latter was particularly true for men. These results point to the significance of examining both individual and social factors when attempting to understand depression in men and women.     

Differential effects of avoidant and attentional coping strategies on adaptation to chronic and recent-onset pain

Examined the effectiveness of attentional and avoidant coping strategies for somatic, behavioral, and psychological adaptation to clinical pain. Subjects were 30 chronic and 30 recent-onset pain patients who used either attentional or avoidant coping strategies in response to their pain. Based on a review of the coping literature, it was hypothesized that subjects with recent-onset pain would demonstrate greater adaptation (lower anxiety, depression, lower pain severity and somatization ratings, and higher levels of social activity) when employing avoidant rather than attentional strategies. Chronic pain subjects using attentional strategies were predicted to demonstrate greater adaptation than chronic pain subjects using avoidant strategies. The results supported this "time x strategy" hypothesis. Implications for pain treatment programs are discussed, and suggestions are made for matching pain duration with patient coping style.     

Stress reactivity and coping in seasonal and nonseasonal depression

Stress, stress reactivity, and coping skill use were examined in individuals with seasonal depression, nonseasonal depression, and nondepressed controls. Although participants in the two depressed groups reported using more avoidance coping strategies than controls, only participants in the seasonal depressed group reported using more season-specific coping (i.e., light-related strategies) than participants in the nonseasonal depressed and control groups. Individuals in the seasonal depressed group also reporting using acceptance coping strategies less frequently than individuals in the control group. Only participants in the nonseasonal depressed group, however, exhibited greater psychophysiological arousal in reaction to a laboratory stressor (i.e., unsolvable anagram task) when compared to participants in the seasonal and nondepressed control groups. Participants in both depressed groups reported greater impact of negative life events during the past 6 months than did controls. Similarities and differences in the two types of depression may have implications for the conceptualization and treatment of seasonal depression.     

Stress and coping strategies in spouses of depressed patients.

The relationships between the coping strategies used by spouses of clinically depressed patients and spouses' anxiety, depression, and marital maladjustment were investigated. Fifty spouses of clinically depressed patients completed a biographical questionnaire, the Coping Strategy Indicator (J. H. Amirkhan, 1990, 1994), the Beck Depression Inventory (A. T. Beck, 1967; A. T. Beck, C. H. Ward, M. Mendelson, J. Mock, & J. Erbaugh, 1961), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (C. D. Spielberger, R. E. Lushene, B. A. Vagg, & E. Jacobs, 1983), and the Locke-Wallace Marital Adjustment Test (H. J. Locke & K. M. Wallace, 1959, 1987). Anxiety was highly prevalent in the spouses; more than half were depressed, and half showed marital maladjustment. Significant positive correlations were found between an avoidant coping strategy and anxiety as well as depression, and a significant negative correlation was found between an avoidant coping strategy and marital adjustment. These findings indicate the ineffectiveness of an avoidant coping strategy for spouses of clinically depressed patients.     

Coping and sensitivity to aversive events

To test further the sensitivity to aversive events hypothesis, males and females varying in level of depressed mood listened to positive, negative, and neutral social scenes while psychophysiological measurements were obtained. In addition, the relations among response styles, coping strategies, and psychological adjustment were examined. Results indicated that only dysphoric females responded in ways consistent with the sensitivity hypothesis, exhibiting greater electrodermal responses to negative social scenes compared to nondysphoric females. No differences in psychophysiological sensitivity were found between dysphoric and nondysphoric males. Dysphoric students engaged in more ruminative type responses in reaction to their depressed mood and reported using more avoidant coping strategies in response to stress. In particular, females utilized more ruminative strategies in response to a depressed mood and more emotion-focused coping strategies in response to stressful events in general. The implications for these results are discussed within a diathesis-stress framework.     

Coping Styles,Pain Expressiveness,and Implicit Theories of Chronic Pain

Whereas some individuals use active coping strategies and are able to adaptively cope with their pain, others use passive strategies and catastrophic appraisals, which are often associated with increased displays of pain behavior and negative pain-related outcomes. To investigate attribution-based implicit theories as a potential underlying mechanism that might affect coping success, we hypothesized that pain patients with an incremental implicit theory of pain (i.e., view pain as malleable) would have more active coping strategies, lower levels of pain expressiveness, and better pain-related outcomes than those with an entity implicit theory of pain (i.e., view pain as nonmalleable). Patients with chronic back pain undergoing a functional assessment completed a variety of self-report measures and participated in a pain-inducing physiotherapy procedure. The results revealed those with an incremental theory of pain used more active coping strategies, displayed less pain behavior, and reported better pain-related outcomes (e.g., lower levels of depression) than individuals with an entity theory of pain. The findings suggest implicit theories of pain may represent an underlying social-cognitive mechanism linked to important coping, emotional, and expressive reactions to chronic pain. Identifying such a mechanism may provide valuable information for the assessment and treatment of chronic pain.     

Coping ability, negative self-evaluation, and overgeneralization: experiment and theory.

Responses of 3 groups of Ss differing in general coping ability, as measured by the Constructive Thinking Inventory, were compared on matched sets of items that differed according to whether the outcomes were positive or negative and directed at the self or at others. All groups reported widespread overgeneralization to items with favorable outcomes. Groups differed strongly and consistently only in response to unfavorable outcomes directed at the self, with poor constructive thinkers reporting more negative overgeneralization than others following such outcomes. It was concluded that poor constructive thinkers have a selective bias toward making negative inferences about the self, which has widespread implications for their general coping ability. A theoretical framework is presented for understanding why individuals acquire and maintain negative self-schemata, which has implications for depression and self-esteem as well as for general coping ability.     

Coping profiles characterize individual flourishing,languishing, and depression

Abstract

According to the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, negative emotions narrow one's thought–action repertoire. In contrast, positive emotions have a broadening effect, expanding cognitive capacity, increasing potential coping strategies that come to mind, and enhancing decision-making, reaction, and adaptation to adversity. Fredrickson and Losada determined that a positivity ratio – the ratio of experienced positive to negative emotions – at or above 2.9 promotes human flourishing. A ratio below 2.9 is indicative of languishing individuals, whereas a ratio below 1.0 is a marker of depression. This study examined whether adaptive and maladaptive coping profiles differentiated those who flourish, languish, or are depressed in two convenience samples – military spouses (n =367) and public school teachers (n=267). Results were consistent with the theoretical predictions, as coping profiles of the groups differed significantly, with flourishing individuals favoring adaptive coping strategies more than those who were languishing or depressed. Conversely, depressed individuals reported greater use of maladaptive coping strategies than those who were languishing or flourishing. These results provide further empirical support for the mathematical model of Fredrickson and Losada, as the set of positivity criteria were predictive of coping profiles in two samples where successful coping and adaptation are important.     

Attributional style, depression, and perceptions of consensus for events

This study examined differences between depressed and nondepressed individuals' implicit perceptions of consensus, which may contribute to differences in their attributional styles. Subjects rated the extent to which positive, negative, and neutral events happen to themselves and to the average college student and completed measures of depth of depression and attributional style. Perceptions of consensus were highly correlated with all components of attributional style for negative and positive events. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that ratings of others explained variance in attributional style beyond that explained by ratings of the self for positive but not for negative events. Path analyses, however, indicated that the indirect path from perceptions of consensus to depression mediated through attributional style was nonsignificant for positive events, although it was significant for negative events. These findings are discussed in terms of the role of perceptions of others as precursors of attributional style and depression.     

Sex differences in relationships among anger, depression, and coping strategies of Japanese students

This study investigated sex differences in the relationships among an ger, depression, and coping strategies. Undergraduate students, 77 men and 130 women, 3 not identified by sex, voluntarily participated. Participants made ratings on a self-report about anger, depression, coping strategies, and mental health. Analyses showed that women who reported themselves as angry tended to cope with stress by optimistic and active strategies, while women who reported themselves as depressed tended to cope with stress by withdrawn and passive strategies. Men who reported being depressed tended to select emotion-focused cognitive coping, while men who reported being angry selected no specific coping. Adoption of engaged emotion focused coping strategies were related to mental health only for women.     

Social comparison,coping and depression in people with spinal cord injury

The present study among 70 people with spinal cord injury examined the prevalence and correlates of identification (seeing others as a potential future) and contrast (seeing others in competitive terms) in social comparison as related to coping and depression. The most prevalent social comparison strategy was downward contrast (a positive response to seeing others who were worse-off), followed by upward identification (a positive response to perceiving better-off others as a potential future), downward identification (a negative response to perceiving worse-off others as a potential future), and upward contrast (a negative response to seeing others who were better-off). Those with less severe lesions reported the highest levels of upward contrast, coping through blaming others, and depression. Downward contrast was particularly related to constructive coping, and upward identification to wishful thinking. The less adaptive social comparison strategies, i.e., upward contrast and downward identification, were quite strongly related to wishful thinking and blaming others. Particularly upward contrast, i.e., feeling bad as response to seeing that others are better-off, was related to depression.     

Impact of emotional approach coping and hope on PTSD and depression symptoms in a trauma exposed sample of Veterans receiving outpatient VA mental health care services

Abstract

The present investigation evaluates the relationship between coping style, dispositional hope, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression symptom severity in a trauma-exposed Veteran sample. Specifically, we evaluated the adaptive value of emotional avoidant and approach coping strategies and perceptions of hope in a sample of 209 trauma-exposed Veterans receiving outpatient mental health care at a VA facility. Participants completed a life events questionnaire and inventories assessing coping, dispositional hope, and PTSD and depression symptom severity. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted controlling for relevant demographic variables. Greater levels of emotional avoidance and lower levels of emotional expression were significantly associated with increased PTSD and depression symptom severity. Dispositional hope was positively associated with depression symptoms only and perceptions of hope moderated the association between emotional avoidance coping and depression symptoms. Findings highlight the value of emotional coping strategies and perceptions of hope in posttraumatic adjustment. Specifically, employing coping techniques that encourage emotional expression may promote improved adjustment among trauma-exposed individuals, while reduced perceptions of hope and the use of avoidant coping strategies may place individuals at greater risk for depression following exposure to traumatic events.     

Impact of emotional approach coping and hope on PTSD and depression symptoms in a trauma exposed sample of Veterans receiving outpatient VA mental health care services

The present investigation evaluates the relationship between coping style, dispositional hope, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression symptom severity in a trauma-exposed Veteran sample. Specifically, we evaluated the adaptive value of emotional avoidant and approach coping strategies and perceptions of hope in a sample of 209 trauma-exposed Veterans receiving outpatient mental health care at a VA facility. Participants completed a life events questionnaire and inventories assessing coping, dispositional hope, and PTSD and depression symptom severity. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted controlling for relevant demographic variables. Greater levels of emotional avoidance and lower levels of emotional expression were significantly associated with increased PTSD and depression symptom severity. Dispositional hope was positively associated with depression symptoms only and perceptions of hope moderated the association between emotional avoidance coping and depression symptoms. Findings highlight the value of emotional coping strategies and perceptions of hope in posttraumatic adjustment. Specifically, employing coping techniques that encourage emotional expression may promote improved adjustment among trauma-exposed individuals, while reduced perceptions of hope and the use of avoidant coping strategies may place individuals at greater risk for depression following exposure to traumatic events.     

Social Relations,Coping, and Psychological Distress Among Persons With HIV/AIDS1

The interrelationships among social support, coping style, and psychological distress were examined using longitudinal data from a sample of 212 persons with HIV/AIDS. Structural equation modeling analyses showed significant indirect effects on psychological distress for avoidant coping, feeling loved and understood, satisfaction with support, rejection by family members, discrimination because of HIV status, and number of AIDS symptoms. The inclusion of negative social interactions in the model is an important extension of the stress‐support literature. Feeling loved and understood mediated the relationship between social support and coping style choice. Results highlight the multidimensional nature of the processes that shape psychological outcomes in HIV disease. and suggest several potential points of intervention, including social‐support efforts that increase the sense that one matters to others, and interventions to assist patients to move from avoidant to active coping strategies.     

Living with depression: Coping strategies used by South Asian women,living in the UK,suffering from depression

This brief study employed a qualitative, grounded theory approach within a constructivist paradigm, to explore the coping strategies used by Asian women suffering from depression. Ten Asian women were interviewed about their choice of coping strategies, factors affecting this and how this relates to treatment. The patients were interviewed individually using a brief semi-structured interview. The data were gathered and analysed according to the grounded-theory approach. Findings revealed that coping strategies included religion and prayer, talking, crying and self harm. The strategies were mediated by the individual's perception of the problem as depression, motivating factors and access to help. A distinction is made between general and culture-specific coping strategies and clinical implications for mental health services are also briefly discussed. Limitations of the study were also presented in line with qualitative research guidelines.     

Expérience du stress à l'adolescence

This study concerns stress—protective factors—distress relationships with 297 adolescents. The first goal was to study if these relationships change depending on the sex of the participant. The second goal of the present research was to predict stress experience (frequency, intensity, severity) by depression, self‐esteem, social support and coping. Controlling the age of the participant, the results indicate that female teenagers are more threatened by chronic stress, more depressive, have more available persons in their social network, use social or avoidant coping more often whereas the male adolescents show a better self‐esteem. Concerning the second objective, self‐esteem and avoidant coping can predict stress experience (frequency and severity), while the state of depression is the only factor that can predict the three aspects of stress (frequency, intensity, severity), as opposed to social support, and social or problem‐solving coping.     

Influence of rumination and self‐efficacy on depression in Japanese undergraduate nursing students

Researchers have suggested that self‐efficacy can predict and prevent depression, while negative coping strategies, as typified by rumination, can lead to depression. The authors examined the relationship between self‐efficacy, rumination, and depression in Japanese nursing students. The result of a structural equation model showed that rumination, but not self‐efficacy, predicted depression. The result of simultaneous multiple group analysis indicated that there was homogeneity within the same path diagram between genders. The result implied that stress management should focus on controlling the degree of rumination rather than self‐efficacy in order to efficiently maintain the mental health of Japanese nursing students.     

Social problem-solving among adolescents treated for depression

Studies suggest that deficits in social problem-solving may be associated with increased risk of depression and suicidality in children and adolescents. It is unclear, however, which specific dimensions of social problem-solving are related to depression and suicidality among youth. Moreover, rational problem-solving strategies and problem-solving motivation may moderate or predict change in depression and suicidality among children and adolescents receiving treatment. The effect of social problem-solving on acute treatment outcomes were explored in a randomized controlled trial of 439 clinically depressed adolescents enrolled in the Treatment for Adolescents with Depression Study (TADS). Measures included the Children's Depression Rating Scale-Revised (CDRS-R), the Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire - Grades 7-9 (SIQ-Jr), and the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised (SPSI-R). A random coefficients regression model was conducted to examine main and interaction effects of treatment and SPSI-R subscale scores on outcomes during the 12-week acute treatment stage. Negative problem orientation, positive problem orientation, and avoidant problem-solving style were non-specific predictors of depression severity. In terms of suicidality, avoidant problem-solving style and impulsiveness/carelessness style were predictors, whereas negative problem orientation and positive problem orientation were moderators of treatment outcome. Implications of these findings, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.     

Community violence exposure,coping, and problematic alcohol and drug use among urban,female caregivers: A prospective study

Victimization is associated with substance use in women, but less is known about linkages between witnessing community violence and substance use, even though more women witness versus directly experience violence. Further, factors that contribute to or protect against women’s problematic substance use are less well understood. Urban female caregivers (N = 318; >92% African American/black) living in low-income communities were interviewed annually for three waves regarding exposure to community violence, coping behaviors, substance use, and protective factors. Path analyses revealed that lifetime witnessing of violence, but not victimization, assessed at baseline, was associated with changes in avoidant coping, but not active coping, one year later; avoidant coping, in turn, was related to changes in and higher levels of problematic drug use the following year. Victimization was directly related to problematic drug use, but not to alcohol use. Regression analyses indicated that high levels of religious commitment and social support at baseline were prospectively associated with lower levels of avoidant coping. Because caregivers are important role models for their children, it is important to attend to the factors that contribute to their substance use and abuse.