Poisson signal-detection theory: Link between threshold models and the Gaussian assumption

The Gaussian model of signal detection cannot fit asymmetric data as long as the variances of the distributions are kept equal. It is therefore common practice to assume unequal variances in order to fit these data. But this assumption leads to the well-known crossover problem. The present paper provides new arguments for the abandonment of the Gaussian model with unequal variances. In its stead, this paper reevaluates multiple-parallel-threshold models. In particular, the Poisson model turns out to be very useful: it can handle data with any degree of asymmetry, giving a reasonable interpretation of the two parameters of the receiver-operating characteristic. The three-state-threshold model (Krantz, 1969) is given a new interpretation in light of the Poisson model. The slope of Poisson double-probability plots turns out to be much closer to unity than is predicted by the Gaussian approximation.     

The relation between the generalized matching law and signal-detection theory

The generalized matching law can be applied to a signal-detection matrix to give two equations. The first relates responding in the presence of the stimulus to the reinforcements for the responses, and the second relates responding in the absence of the stimulus to the reinforcements for the responses. Evidence for stimulus discrimination is given by biases that are opposite in sign in the two equations. As the logarithmic ratio and z proportion transformations are similar, the combination of the absolute values of the two logarithmic biases gives a measure equivalent to the signal-detection measures d′ and η. The two equations can also be combined to eliminate the biases caused by the signalling stimuli and to produce a generalized matching-law statement relating overall performance to the obtained reinforcements.     

Dual-process theory and signal-detection theory of recognition memory

Two influential models of recognition memory, the unequal-variance signal-detection model and a dual-process threshold/detection model, accurately describe the receiver operating characteristic, but only the latter model can provide estimates of recollection and familiarity. Such estimates often accord with those provided by the remember-know procedure, and both methods are now widely used in the neuroscience literature to identify the brain correlates of recollection and familiarity. However, in recent years, a substantial literature has accumulated directly contrasting the signal-detection model against the threshold/detection model, and that literature is almost unanimous in its endorsement of signal-detection theory. A dual-process version of signal-detection theory implies that individual recognition decisions are not process pure, and it suggests new ways to investigate the brain correlates of recognition memory.     

Visual search for orientation among heterogeneous distractors: experimental results and implications for signal-detection theory models of search

Three experiments tested a signal-detection theory (SDT) model of visual search (e.g., as described in J. Palmer, C. T. Ames, & D. T. Lindsey, 1993). In Experiment 1, participants searched for a 0 degrees line among distractors at (a) 30 degrees; (b) 1/3 at 30 degrees, 2/3 at 50 degrees; (c) 1/3 at 30 degrees, 50 degrees, and 70 degrees; and (d) 1/3 at 30 degrees, 2/3 at 70 degrees. The SDT model predicts improved performance in the more heterogeneous conditions, as some distractors are more discriminable from the target. In contrast, in Experiment 1 human performance degraded in the more heterogeneous conditions (c and d). In Experiment 2, sparser displays improved the performance of the SDT model. In Experiment 3, search for theta degrees among homogeneous theta + 20 degrees distractors was compared with search for theta degrees among theta+/-20 degrees distractors. Performance in the latter condition was often worse, relative to performance in the homogeneous condition, than predicted by the SDT model; however, this depended greatly on the identity of the target.     

Sum-difference theory of remembering and knowing: a two-dimensional signal-detection model

In the remember-know paradigm for studying recognition memory, participants distinguish items whose presentations are episodically remembered from those that are merely familiar. A one-dimensional model postulates that remember responses are just high-confidence old judgments, but a meta-analysis of 373 experiments shows that the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves predicted by this model have the wrong slope. According to the new sum-difference Theory of remembering and knowing (STREAK), old items differ from new ones in both global and specific memory strength: The old-new judgment is based on a weighted sum of these dimensions, and the remember- know judgment is based on a weighted difference. STREAK accounts for the form of several novel kinds of ROC curves and for existing remember-know and item-recognition data.     

Moving beyond pure signal-detection models: comment on Wixted (2007)

The dual-process signal-detection (DPSD) model assumes that recognition memory is based on recollection of qualitative information or on a signal-detection-based familiarity process. The model has proven useful for understanding results from a wide range of memory research, including behavioral, neuropsychological, electrophysiological, and neuroimaging studies. However, a number of concerns have been raised about the model over the years, and it has been suggested that an unequal-variance signal-detection (UVSD) model that incorporates separate recollection and familiarity processes (J. T. Wixted, 2007) may provide an equally good, or even better, account of the data. In this article, the authors show that the results of studies that differentiate these models support the predictions of the DPSD model and indicate that recognition does not reflect the summing of 2 signal-detection processes, as the new UVSD model assumes. In addition, the assumptions of the DPSD model are clarified in order to address some of the common misconceptions about the model. Although important challenges remain, hybrid models such as this provide a more useful framework within which to understand human memory than do pure signal-detection models.     

Personality and reciprocal inhibition theory: The link between aggression and sexual reactivity

The study tries to relate two approaches often discussed in the context of aggression and violence in combination with sexual arousal, the reciprocal inhibition theory (Wolpe, 1958) and an approach from personality psychology which emphasizes the psychoticism dimension (P) according to Eysenck and Eysenck (1975) as a mediator of violent sexual offence. The effects of preexposure to a violent vs. neutral movie on sexual reactivity to violent and non-violent sexual stimuli (audioplays and pictures) was studied in a male student population (N=64). Sexual reactivity was measured by self-ratings, inspection time and electrodermal activity. Results could not confirm reciprocal inhibition theory but revealed that sexual reactivity for subjects scoring high vs. low on the psychoticism/aggressiveness dimension were differently affected by preexposure to violence.     

Simple visual reaction time,personality and strength of the nervous system: A signal-detection theory approach

Eysenck (1967) has reviewed evidence which suggests that introverts have a higher level of arousal than extraverts. Moreover, Gray (1967) has proposed that introverts have weak nervous systems, in the Russian terminology. Studies of simple reaction time such as that of Mangan and Farmer (1967) have posed problems for these views, but it is suggested that this may have been due to criterion differences between introverts and extraverts. In the present study a simple visual reaction-time task and a signal-detection task were conducted side by side. No significant differences between introverts and extraverts were found in measures of strength derived from the former, or measures of criterion derived from the latter. However, high N Ss were found to have a significantly lower value for Nebylitsyn's index of the slope of the reaction time/stimulus intensity function, thus supporting the view that high N Ss have relatively weak nervous systems.     

Applying signal-detection theory to the study of observer accuracy and bias in behavioral assessment

We evaluated the feasibility and utility of a laboratory model for examining observer accuracy within the framework of signal-detection theory (SDT). Sixty-one individuals collected data on aggression while viewing videotaped segments of simulated teacher-child interactions. The purpose of Experiment 1 was to determine if brief feedback and contingencies for scoring accurately would bias responding reliably. Experiment 2 focused on one variable (specificity of the operational definition) that we hypothesized might decrease the likelihood of bias. The effects of social consequences and information about expected behavior change were examined in Experiment 3. Results indicated that feedback and contingencies reliably biased responding and that the clarity of the definition only moderately affected this outcome.     

Landscaping analyses of the ROC predictions of discrete-slots and signal-detection models of visual working memory

A fundamental issue concerning visual working memory is whether its capacity limits are better characterized in terms of a limited number of discrete slots (DSs) or a limited amount of a shared continuous resource. Rouder et al. (2008) found that a mixed-attention, fixed-capacity, DS model provided the best explanation of behavior in a change detection task, outperforming alternative continuous signal detection theory (SDT) models. Here, we extend their analysis in two ways: first, with experiments aimed at better distinguishing between the predictions of the DS and SDT models, and second, using a model-based analysis technique called landscaping, in which the functional-form complexity of the models is taken into account. We find that the balance of evidence supports a DS account of behavior in change detection tasks but that the SDT model is best when the visual displays always consist of the same number of items. In our General Discussion section, we outline, but ultimately reject, a number of potential explanations for the observed pattern of results. We finish by describing future research that is needed to pinpoint the basis for this observed pattern of results.     

The diagnosticity of individual data for model selection: Comparing signal-detection models of recognition memory

We tested whether the unequal-variance signal-detection (UVSD) and dual-process signal-detection (DPSD) models of recognition memory mimic the behavior of each other when applied to individual data. Replicating previous results, there was no mimicry for an analysis that fit each individual, summed the goodness-of-fit values over individuals, and compared the two sums (i.e., a single model selection). However, when the models were compared separately for each individual (i.e., multiple model selections), mimicry was substantial. To quantify the diagnosticity of the individual data, we used mimicry to calculate the probability of making a model selection error for each individual. For nondiagnostic data (high model selection error), the results were compatible with equal-variance signal-detection theory. Although neither model was justified in this situation, a forced-choice between the UVSD and DPSD models favored the DPSD model for being less flexible. For diagnostic data (low model selection error), the UVSD model was selected more often.     

Expectancy-value models of attitudes: A note on the relationship between theory and methodology

Concern has been expressed in the literature regarding the method of scoring ‘beliefs’ within expectancy-value models of attitudes. This paper reviews the major issues and focuses upon some hitherto largely neglected problems with scoring methods. Empirical findings from a series of studies concerned with ‘the theory of reasoned action’ are examined: with a multiplicative Combination of beliefs and evaluations, it is found that bipolar scoring of belief items leads to higher correlations of the summed products of beliefs and evaluations with attitudes than are achieved with unipolar scoring. These findings contrast markedly with recently reported research and indicate the important role played by contextual factors (such as belief content and the response scales presented to subjects). It is concluded that more attention needs to be paid to the relationship between conceptual and methodological issues.     

Preference structures and threshold models

Preferences are often represented in terms of a function, in the deterministic case as well as in the probabilistic case. In the present paper we develop a new numerical representation of preference structures for which the strict preference relation (P) is without circuit but not necessarily transitive. Moreover, we investigate the consequences of the representation for the usual preference structures. In particular, we propose new formulations for the numerical representation of the interval order structure.     

Retrieval-induced forgetting without competition: Testing the retrieval specificity assumption of the inhibition theory

According to the inhibition theory of forgetting (Anderson, Journal of Memory and Language 49:415–445, 2003; Anderson, Bjork, & Bjork, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 7:522-530, 2000), retrieval practice on a subset of target items leads to forgetting for the other, nontarget items, due to the fact that these other items interfere during the retrieval process and have to be inhibited in order to resolve the interference. In this account, retrieval-induced forgetting occurs only when competition takes place between target and nontarget items during target item practice, since only in such a case is inhibition of the nontarget items necessary. Strengthening of the target item without active retrieval should not lead to such an impairment. In two experiments, we investigated this assumption by using noncompetitive retrieval during the practice phase. We strengthened the cue–target item association during practice by recall of the category name instead of the target item, and thus eliminated competition between the different item types (as in Anderson et al., Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 7:522-530 2000). In contrast to the expectations of the inhibition theory, retrieval-induced forgetting occurred even without competition, and thus the present study does not support the retrieval specificity assumption.     

The repeated insertion model for rankings: Missing link between two subset choice models

Several probabilistic models for subset choice have been proposed in the literature, for example, to explain approval voting data. We show that Marley et al.'s latent scale model is subsumed by Falmagne and Regenwetter's size-independent model, in the sense that every choice probability distribution generated by the former can also be explained by the latter. Our proof relies on the construction of a probabilistic ranking model which we label the repeated insertion model. This model is a special case of Marden's orthogonal contrast model class and, in turn, includes the classical Mallows -model as a special case. We explore its basic properties as well as its relationship to Fligner and Verducci's multistage ranking model.The authors are grateful to the National Science Foundation for grants SES98-18756 to Regenwetter and Peke, and SBR97-30076 to Regenwetter. This collaborative research was carried out in the context of the conference Random Utility 2000 held at Duke University and sponsored by NSF, the Fuqua School of Business and the Center for International Business Education and Research. We thank the editor and four referees for helpful suggestions and we are grateful to Prof. J. I. Marden for providing useful information on contrast models. We thank Moon-Ho Ho for programming and running the data analyses.     

Relational regulation theory: a new approach to explain the link between perceived social support and mental health

Perceived support is consistently linked to good mental health, which is typically explained as resulting from objectively supportive actions that buffer stress. Yet this explanation has difficulty accounting for the often-observed main effects between support and mental health. Relational regulation theory (RRT) hypothesizes that main effects occur when people regulate their affect, thought, and action through ordinary yet affectively consequential conversations and shared activities, rather than through conversations about how to cope with stress. This regulation is primarily relational in that the types of people and social interactions that regulate recipients are mostly a matter of personal taste. RRT operationally defines relationships quantitatively, permitting the clean distinction between relationships and recipient personality. RRT makes a number of new predictions about social support, including new approaches to intervention.     

Affective interactions using virtual reality: the link between presence and emotions.

Many studies showed the ability of movies and imagery techniques to elicit emotions. Nevertheless, it is less clear how to manipulate the content of interactive media to induce specific emotional responses. In particular, this is true for the emerging medium virtual reality (VR), whose main feature is the ability to induce a feeling of "presence" in the computer-generated world experienced by the user. The main goal of this study was to analyze the possible use of VR as an affective medium. Within this general goal, the study also analyzed the relationship between presence and emotions. The results confirmed the efficacy of VR as affective medium: the interaction with "anxious" and "relaxing" virtual environments produced anxiety and relaxation. The data also showed a circular interaction between presence and emotions: on one side, the feeling of presence was greater in the "emotional" environments; on the other side, the emotional state was influenced by the level of presence. The significance of these results for the assessment of affective interaction is discussed.     

Do the right thing: The assumption of optimality in lay decision theory and causal judgment

Human decision-making is often characterized as irrational and suboptimal. Here we ask whether people nonetheless assume optimal choices from other decision-makers: Are people intuitive classical economists? In seven experiments, we show that an agent’s perceived optimality in choice affects attributions of responsibility and causation for the outcomes of their actions. We use this paradigm to examine several issues in lay decision theory, including how responsibility judgments depend on the efficacy of the agent’s actual and counterfactual choices (Experiments 1–3), individual differences in responsibility assignment strategies (Experiment 4), and how people conceptualize decisions involving trade-offs among multiple goals (Experiments 5–6). We also find similar results using everyday decision problems (Experiment 7). Taken together, these experiments show that attributions of responsibility depend not only on what decision-makers do, but also on the quality of the options they choose not to take.     

The link between preschoolers' executive function and theory of mind and the role of epistemic states

The aim of this study was to assess the specific relation between 3- to 6-year-olds’ performance on a task measuring executive function (EF), the Dimensional Change Card Sort task (DCCS), and different developmental attainments in their theory of mind (ToM) by employing a battery of scaled ToM tasks that were comparable in task format and task demands. In addition, individual differences on the temperamental dimensions emotionality, activity, sociability, and shyness were assessed by parental rating. The main findings show that children’s (N = 195) performance on the DCCS related to their overall performance on the ToM scale but that this relation was specific to those ToM tasks that tap children’s understanding of epistemic states such as knowledge access, diverse beliefs, and false beliefs regarding content and location. The relation between children’s EF and overall ToM performance remained significant after controlling for age, sentence comprehension, child temperament, and parental education. Individual differences in child activity showed consistent negative relation to EF and ToM abilities. The findings point to a differential involvement of the various EF components in reasoning about different mental concepts.