Familiarity from orthographic information: Extensions of the recognition without identification effect

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of letter location information in recognition memory judgments. The experiments used the recognition without identification paradigm (Peynircioglu, 1990), in which participants first attempt to identify the test item and then make a recognition decision as to whether or not the item was studied. In these studies, items that are not identified but that correspond to items that were presented are typically still rated as more likely to have been studied than those that were not presented. The present experiments demonstrated this finding with a variant of the conjunction lure paradigm. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants were tested with word fragments that were made from the letters of two words. When the letters were from studied items, fragments were rated higher than when the test items were derived from two unstudied items, or one studied item and one unstudied item, suggesting that recognition without identification is prone to the same types of errors as recognition with identification. Results are discussed in terms of familiarity effects in recognition memory.     

Item selection methods with exposure and time control for computerized classification test

Computerized classification testing (CCT) commonly chooses items maximizing information at the cut score, which yields the most information for decision-making. However, a corollary problem is that all examinees will be given the same set of items, resulting in high test overlap rate and unbalanced item bank usage, which threatens test security. Moreover, another pivotal issue for CCT is time control. Since both the extremely long response time (RT) and large RT variability across examinees intensify time-induced anxiety, it is crucial to reduce the number of examinees exceeding the time limitation and the differences between examinees' test-taking times. To satisfy these practical needs, this paper proposes the novel idea of stage adaptiveness to tailor the item selection process to the decision-making requirement in each step and generate fresh insight into the existing response time selection method. Results indicate that a balanced item usage as well as short and stable test times across examinees can be achieved via the new methods.     

The Revised Dutch Rating System for Test Quality

This article describes the 1997 revision of the Dutch Rating System for Test Quality used by the Committee of Test Affairs of the Dutch Association of Psychologists (COTAN). The revised rating system evaluates the quality of a test on 7 criteria: Theoretical basis and the soundness of the test development procedure, Quality of the testing materials, Comprehensiveness of the manual, Norms, Reliability, Construct validity, and Criterion validity. For each criterion, a checklist with a number of items is provided. Some items (for each criterion at least 1) are so-called key questions, which check whether certain minimum conditions are met. If a key question is rated negative, the rating for that criterion will automatically be "insufficient." To enhance a uniform interpretation of the items by the raters and to explain the system to test users and test developers, comment sections provide detailed information on rating and weighting the items. Once the items have been rated, the final grades (insufficient, sufficient, or good) for the 7 criteria are established by means of weighting rules.     

项目反应时间的对数偏正态模型

近年来,项目反应时间数据的建模是心理和教育测量领域的热门方向之一。针对反应时间的对数正态模型和Box-Cox正态模型的不足,本文在van der Linden的分层模型框架下基于偏正态分布建立一个反应时间的对数线性模型,并成功给出模型参数估计的马尔科夫链蒙特卡罗（Markov Chain Monte Carlo, MCMC）算法。模拟研究和实例分析的结果均表明,与对数正态模型和Box-Cox正态模型相比,对数偏正态模型表现出更加优良的拟合效果,具有更强的灵活性和适用性。     

Validity of the Suicide Assessment Checklist in an Emergency Crisis Center

Validity of the Suicide Assessment Checklist (SAC; J. R. Rogers, 1990) was investigated in a sample of 1,969 admissions to a psychiatric emergency crisis center. Internal consistency reliability for rated items of the SAC was .87. Supporting construct‐related validity, total score differences were found in the expected directions as a function of referral reason. Convergent validity was based on observed correlations between selected SAC items and conceptually similar items on the Beck Depression Inventory (A. T. Beck, 1970). Supporting criterion‐related validity, total score differences in the expected directions were found as a function of disposition setting. Recommendations are made for the use of the SAC in the practice of counseling.     

Effects of short-term memory contents on short-and long-term memory searches

The Ss memorized a long-term set (LT set) of 20 words before participating in a recognition memory test. On each trial Ss were given a new short-term set (ST set) of from one to four words or one to four digits. The Ss gave a positive response to a test item that was a member of either the ST or the LT set and gave a negative response to a test item not in either set; both words and digits were used as test stimuli. The results indicated that reaction time (RT) to positive test items from the ST set was an increasing function 0f the size of the ST set; the same was also true for negative responses to test digits when the ST set was composed of digits. RT to other test stimuli, however, did not depend on ST set size. These results are consistent with the view that Ss access long-term memory (LTM) and short-term memory (STM) simultaneously rather than sequentially. The results also showed that Ss responded more quickly to test items from the LT set when the ST set contained digits than when it contained words. Negative test items that were words, however, were rejected more slowly when the ST set contained digits than when it contained words. These results suggest that the search of LTM was affected by the contents of STM.     

Asymmetry of generalization decrement in causal learning

Two experiments required volunteers to learn which of various “planes” caused high levels of pollution. Novel test items were then rated as causes of pollution. Items created by adding novel features were rated at the same level as that of the original training items but items created by removing features received reduced ratings. This asymmetry of generalization decrement was not predicted by a well-known configural model of stimulus representation (Pearce, 1987, 1994) but was predicted by a recently proposed model of stimulus representation, the replaced-elements model (Brandon, Vogel, & Wagner, 2000).     

Response-time evidence for mixed memory states in a sequential-presentation change-detection task

Response-time (RT) and choice-probability data were obtained in a rapid visual sequential-presentation change-detection task in which memory set size, study-test lag, and objective change probabilities were manipulated. False “change” judgments increased dramatically with increasing lag, consistent with the idea that study items with long lags were ejected from a discrete-slots buffer. Error RTs were nearly invariant with set size and lag, consistent with the idea that the errors were produced by a stimulus-independent guessing process. The patterns of error and RT data could not be explained in terms of encoding limitations, but were consistent with the hypothesis that long retention lags produced a zero-stimulus-information state that required guessing. Formal modeling of the change-detection RT and error data pointed toward a hybrid model of visual working memory. The hybrid model assumed mixed states involving a combination of memory and guessing, but with higher memory resolution for items with shorter retention lags. The work raises new questions concerning the nature of the memory representations that are produced across the closely related tasks of change detection and visual memory search.     

不同类别学习方式的对比研究

55名被试被随机分配到两个组,分别通过分类学习与推理学习来学习两个类别,之后,两组被试对新的测试项目进行典型性评定,考察类别学习方式对类别表征的影响。研究结果表明,分类学习者仅仅依据项目的诊断性程度来评定,而推理学习者主要依据项目的典型性程度来评定。所以,诊断性信息在分类学习者的类别表征中占有重要位置,典型性信息在推理学习者的类别表征中占有重要位置,即分类学习与推理学习导致的类别表征不同。     

The relationship between MCMI subtlety and severity

Wierzbicki (Wierzbicki & Daleiden, 1993; Wierzbicki & Howard, 1992) has suggested that the Subtle-Obvious distinction may be useful for detecting faking on the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI; Millon, 1983). This study examined Schretlen's (1990) criticism that, on the MMPI, subtlety is confounded with severity. Nine clinical psychology graduate students rated MCMI items for severity. Severity was significantly correlated (r = -.48) with item subtlety. However, this association was lower than that reported by Schretlen on the MMPI.     

计算机化多维测验中作答时间和作答精度数据的联合分析

随着心理与教育测量研究的发展和科技的进步,计算机化(大规模)测验逐渐受到人们的关注。为探究在计算机化多维测验中如何利用作答时间数据来辅助评估多维潜在能力,以及为我国义务教育阶段教育质量监测提供数据分析方法上的理论支持。本研究以2012年和2015年国际学生能力评估(PISA)计算机化数学测验数据为例,提出了一种可同时利用作答时间和作答精度数据的联合作答与时间的多维Rasch模型。根据新模型对PISA数据的分析结果,表明引入作答时间数据,不仅有助于提高模型参数的估计精度,还有助于数据分析者利用被试的作答时间信息来做进一步的决策和干预(e.g., 对异常作答行为或预备知识的诊断)。     

Assessing the effectiveness of warnings and the phenomenological characteristics of false memories

The phenomenology of false memories was investigated in three experiments in which participants heard two experimenters read lists of items that were related to critical nonpresented items. In Experiments 1, following a recognition memory test, participants rated the phenomenological characteristics of their memories immediately and after a 48-hour delay. False recognition was prevalent and on several dimensions participants rated their true memories as more vivid than their false memories. In Experiments 2 and 3, following the study phase, participants were warned about the phenomenological differences between true and false memories and were instructed to use this information to avoid reporting nonpresented items. This type of warning was ineffective at reducing false recall (Experiment 2) and false recognition (Experiment 3) relative to unwarned participants. Importantly, the inability of explicit warnings to impact illusory recollections demonstrates that the false memories cannot be attributed simply to a criterion shift.     

Assessing the effectiveness of warnings and the phenomenological characteristics of false memories

The phenomenology of false memories was investigated in three experiments in which participants heard two experimenters read lists of items that were related to critical nonpresented items. In Experiments 1, following a recognition memory test, participants rated the phenomenological characteristics of their memories immediately and after a 48-hour delay. False recognition was prevalent and on several dimensions participants rated their true memories as more vivid than their false memories. In Experiments 2 and 3, following the study phase, participants were warned about the phenomenological differences between true and false memories and were instructed to use this information to avoid reporting nonpresented items. This type of warning was ineffective at reducing false recall (Experiment 2) and false recognition (Experiment 3) relative to unwarned participants. Importantly, the inability of explicit warnings to impact illusory recollections demonstrates that the false memories cannot be attributed simply to a criterion shift.     

The Relationship Between MCMI Subtlety and Severity

Wierzbicki (Wierzbicki & Daleiden, 1993; Wierzbicki & Howard, 1992) has suggested that the Subtle-Obvious distinction may be useful for detecting faking on the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI; Millon, 1983). This study examined Schretlen's (1990) criticism that, on the MMPI, subtlety is confounded with severity. Nine clinical psychology graduate students rated MCMI items for severity. Severity was significantly correlated (r = -.48) with item subtlety. However, this association was lower than that reported by Schretlen on the MMPI.     

Organization and long-term memory search

A recognition RT paradigm was used to assess a number of plausible search strategies in LTM for categorized lists. List length was determined by factorially combining two, three, or five categories with two, three, or five words per category, and test items could be one of four types: (1) positive, (2) a repeated positive, (3) a related negative, or (4) an unrelated negative. It was found that RT increased linearly with category size for both positive and related negatives (about 30-40 msec/item); whereas the increase was much smaller for the unrelated negatives, especially for three and five categories (about 9 msec/item). With an increase in the number of categories, RT increased at the rate of about 40 msec/category for all three test items. A theory of .high-speed scanning for categorized material was proposed in which a serial and exhaustive search of the categories, is first undertaken. If a positive category match is found, a serial and exhaustive search within the contents of the positive category is initiated; if no category match is found, the search is simply terminated. Some evidence was presented that categories recently probed may provide for a short-circuiting of the category search.     

Visual marking: dissociating effects of new and old set size

Visual marking makes it possible to ignore old items during search. In a typical study, old items are previewed 1 s before adding an equal number of new items, one of which is the target. Previewing half of the items reduces the search slope relating response time (RT) to overall set size by half. However, this manipulation sometimes only reduces overall RT but not search slope (Experiment 1). By orthogonally varying the numbers of old and new items, Experiment 2 shows that old and new set sizes interactively affect visual marking. Given a constant new set size, the size of the old set has negligible effect on RT. However, increasing the new set size reduces the preview benefit in overall RT. Experiment 3 shows that this reduction may be restricted to paradigms that use temporal segregation cues. Studies should vary old and new set size orthogonally to avoid missing a visual marking effect where one may be present.     

Criterion Validity is Maintained When Items are Evaluatively Neutralized: Evidence from a Full‐scale Five‐factor Model Inventory

The original version and an evaluatively neutralized version (with items rephrased to reduce popularity) of a personality inventory were compared. The results revealed (i) similar criterion validity across three different sets of self‐rated behaviours, (ii) stronger relations to the rated social desirability of criteria for the original version and (iii) less correlation between factors for the neutralized version. We take the results to indicate that evaluative neutralization is a viable technique for reducing social desirability in self‐ratings. Implications for test construction are discussed. Copyright © 2014 European Association of Personality Psychology     

认知诊断CAT中项目曝光控制方法的比较

项目曝光率关系到题库建设和测验安全,是计算机化自适应测验(Computerized Adaptive Testing, CAT)需要考虑的重要问题。在认知诊断 CAT 情形下,首先基于传统 CAT 中 a-分层方法的思想提出按项目信息量对题库分层的分层多阶段(Stratified Multistage, SM)选题方法;然后将 SM 方法与项目合格(Item Eligibility, IE)方法相结合得到SMIE方法。在此基础上,开展模拟研究比较SM、IE、SMIE、最大修正优先指标(Maximum Modified Priority Index, MMPI)方法、限制阈值(Restrictive Threshold, RT)方法和限制进度(Restrictive Progressive, RPG)方法的选题表现。总体上,它们的测量精度从高到低依次为IE、SM、SMIE、RT、RPG和MMPI方法;项目曝光分布均匀性的优劣次序为MMPI、RPG、SMIE、RT、SM和IE方法;SMIE和RT方法能较好地平衡测量精度和项目曝光均匀性要求。     

Effects of good form and spatial frequency on global precedence

Does the global precedence effect depend on the goodness of the global form and low spatial frequencies? In Experiments 1 and 2, under a variety of attentional and task conditions, a global advantage in response time (RT) occurred in “good,” many-element compound patterns but not in “poor,” few-element patterns (unless the local elements were too small to be easily recognized). Symmetric interference effects were found in all patterns, however, suggesting that global and local information were encoded in parallel and that the global advantage in RT involved some postperceptual processes. Experiments 3A and 3B showed that the global advantage in RT and perceived pattern goodness depend on low spatial frequencies: Lowpass-filtered patterns rated as “good” showed the usual global advantage in RT, but highpass-filtered, many-element forms rated as “poor” did not. These findings suggest that a global advantage in RT requires an unambiguous global form conveyed by low spatial frequencies.     

Changes in alertness and processing capacity in a serial learning task

Second-to-second changes in processing capacity were examined using a concurrent task paradigm involving serial learning and simple reaction time (RT) in two experiments. Experiment 1 demonstrated the feasibility of combining probe RT with a slow-paced serial learning task including perceptually isolated items. Experiment 2 employed the same concurrent tasks to compare cardiac interbeat interval (IBI, the reciprocal of heart rate) with probe RT. Second-to-second changes during item processing were found consistently for both measures. However, these changes appeared to be more related to observing and response requirements than to the specific cognitive processes required by the tasks. Correctly anticipated items were associated with (l)RT changes, suggesting heightened allocation of capacity, and (2)a cardiac IBI response of episodic cardiac deceleration imposed upon the task-induced cardiac speeding. The probe RT and cardiac IBI measures showed reasonable convergence in assessing the allocation of processing capacity. The concept of the accessibility of allocated capacity was introduced in considering instances of the divergence of probe RT and cardiac IBI.