意向保持间隔对时间性前瞻记忆的影响

通过两个实验来探讨意向保持间隔对时间性前瞻记忆的影响。实验一仅通过嵌入前瞻目标的背景任务来操纵保持间隔,实验二通过在背景任务之前加入不同时长的填充任务来改变意向保持间隔。结果发现,(1)背景任务中的保持间隔越长,前瞻记忆成绩越差;(2)背景任务中的保持间隔和填充任务的时长对前瞻记忆的影响存在交互作用。成绩最好的为15min-2min组,最差的为15min-15min组。结果表明,背景任务和填充任务阶段对于个体保持前瞻意向可能有不同的功能。     

The effects of affect and input source on flashbulb memories

Flashbulb memories of shocking news (Challenger Explosion, death of Princess Diana, Pearl Harbour and Iraq bombings) were employed to test two hypotheses: encoding emotion enhances memory and how one gets the shocking news will help determine the nature of what is recalled. Different groups of subjects (Total = 2405) remembered their discoveries at delays ranging from 2 weeks to 50 years on three memory measures: a free and probed recall test of their flashbulb discovery, and a probed recall of the facts concerning the events themselves. Subjects were grouped according to the source of their discovery (Media vs. Person), affect at encoding (calm vs. upset) and recounts (few vs. many). The results indicated that how one learns of shocking news determined the type and extent of the resultant memory. ‘Media’ subjects remembered more facts whereas ‘person’ subjects recalled more of their personal discoveries regardless of the initial flashbulb inspiring event. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of retention intervals on self- and proxy reports of purchases

Two studies explored underlying differences between self- and proxy reports and determining whether proxy reporters process and retrieve information the same way self-reporters do. In both studies, participants recorded their own and a target person's incidental purchases for two weeks and then returned, either immediately or one-week after the diary-keeping period, for two recall tests. These tests pertained to self-and proxy purchases. The reported items were scored against the recorded ones. In Study 1, the data indicate that proxies tend to recall more typical events than do self-reporters immediately following the diary-keeping period. However, after a delay of one week, both proxy and self-reporters tended to report typical items. These findings suggest that, at least initially, self- and proxy reporters process the information differently but that after one week they process it similarly. Study 2 employed a method that was identical to that of Study 1 except that participants were given a recognition test. The verbal protocols from the recognition test indicate that participants used different strategies to determine who made the purchase. Whereas participants focused on perceptual details surrounding the event when identifying their own purchases, proxies engaged in various strategies to identify their spouses' purchases.     

The effects of retention intervals on self- and proxy reports of purchases

Two studies explored underlying differences between self- and proxy reports and determining whether proxy reporters process and retrieve information the same way self-reporters do. In both studies, participants recorded their own and a target person's incidental purchases for two weeks and then returned, either immediately or one-week after the diary-keeping period, for two recall tests. These tests pertained to self- and proxy purchases. The reported items were scored against the recorded ones. In Study 1, the data indicate that proxies tend to recall more typical events than do self-reporters immediately following the diary-keeping period. However, after a delay of one week, both proxy and self-reporters tended to report typical items. These findings suggest that, at least initially, self- and proxy reporters process the information differently but that after one week they process it similarly. Study 2 employed a method that was identical to that of Study 1 except that participants were given a recognition test. The verbal protocols from the recognition test indicate that participants used different strategies to determine who made the purchase. Whereas participants focused on perceptual details surrounding the event when identifying their own purchases, proxies engaged in various strategies to identify their spouses' purchases.     

The interaction of memories in the rat: Effects on short-term retention performance

In four experiments, rats were tested for short-term retention of a target spatial location either with or without prior exposures to alternate spatial locations in a T-maze. In all cases, exposure to alternate locations prior to exposure to the target location impaired retention of the target. This impairment increased as the number of exposures to the alternate location was increased, and the impairment decreased as the interval between alternate and target exposures was increased. In no case was the magnitude of the impairment found to increase as the retention interval was lengthened.     

Self-ratings of positive and negative affect and retrieval of positive and negative affect memories

Abstract

Based on analysis of self-ratings of mood, positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) have been proposed as basic, orthogonal mood dimensions (Watson & Tellegen, 1985). The present study asked subjects (N = 61) to not only provide self-ratings of PA and NA terms but also to retrieve personal memories associated with those terms. Self-rated PA was associated with latency to retrieve PA- but not NA-related memories; self-rated NA was associated with latency to retrieve NA- but not PA-related memories. Self-ratings of PA and NA were not significantly correlated, nor were retrieval latencies for PA and NA memories. Individual item correlations also revealed a strong direct relationship between self-ratings and retrieval latency. The dissociations involving a non-self report measure strengthen the distinction between PA and NA, and the individual item correlations are interpreted as showing that self-ratings of affect are based upon the ease of retrieval of personal memories.     

Compelling untruths: The effect of retention interval on content borrowing and vivid false memories

False memories are sometimes vivid and detailed. We proposed that the details that come to be associated with false memories may be produced by a process called content borrowing. In content borrowing, details from presented items are erroneously borrowed to corroborate the occurrence of the false memory item. In the present research we used think-out-loud protocols at both study and test to provide evidence for content borrowing in the DRM paradigm. We also demonstrated that content borrowing was more common after a 2-week delay, and was more common for critical lures than for missing exemplars.     

Motive-related memories: content, structure, and affect

Two studies tested hypotheses on the content and structure of autobiographical memories and the affect linked to them. In Study 1, agentic- and communal-motivated individuals recorded their most memorable experiences and completed the PANAS each day for 6 weeks. Memories were coded for content and structure. Agentics and communals reported more motive congruent memories, and their congruent memories were structured using more differentiation and integration, respectively. In addition, agentics had slightly higher PA and lower NA scores. In Study 2, agentics and communals recalled an event pertaining to either social separation or connection and then completed an affect measure of agentic and communal items. Agentics recalled more agentic memories in the separation condition and communals recalled more communal memories in the connection condition. Complexity analyses showed that agentics and communals used differentiation and integration respectively to recall their motive-congruent memories. The affect data showed a modestpredicted pattern. Results suggest that implicit motives have an impact on autobiographical memory but are not as clearly related to self-report affect measures, possibly due to method variance.     

The effect of cue-familiarity, cue-distinctiveness, and retention interval on prospective remembering

Five experiments investigated the effects of cue familiarity, cue distinctiveness, and retention interval on prospective remembering. Results showed that (1) performance in a prospective memory task is facilitated when the cue is unfamiliar and/or distinctive; and (2) it is impaired by 3-minutes' delay between the instructions and the task (Experiment 1). A beneficial effect of distinctiveness was also found when perceptual rather than semantic distinctiveness was tested (Experiment 2). Experiments 3 and 4 ruled out the hypotheses that “unfulfilled expectancy” of an event (i.e. non-appearance of the cue during training) (Experiment 3), or some sort of “habituation” in the target context (Experiment 4), may have caused the low performance observed in the delayed conditions. Finally, results from Experiment 5 showed that delay negatively affected prospective remembering when it was filled with either a demanding interpolated activity (practice in a STM task) or an undemanding motoric activity (repetitive hands movements). Unfilled delay and an undemanding verbal activity (counting) were found not to affect prospective memory. Implications for the mechanisms underlying prospective remembering are discussed.     

Adults' memories of childhood: affect, knowing, and remembering

Adult questionnaire respondents reported, for each of a number of events, if they had experienced that event during childhood and, if so, if they remembered the experience or merely knew it had happened. Respondents also rated the emotion of each event and judged whether they would remember more about each reportedly experienced event if they spent more time trying to do so. Study 1 respondents were 96 undergraduates, whereas Study 2 tested 93 community members ranging widely in age. Respondents often reported no recollections of reportedly experienced events. Reportedly experienced events rated as emotional were more often recollected than those rated as neutral, and those rated as positive were more often recollected than those rated as negative. Predicted ability to remember more was related to current memory. Claims of remembering reportedly experienced events increased with age, but predicted ability to remember more about them declined with age.     

Phonological similarity in free and serial recall: The effect of increasing retention intervals

The phonological similarity effect (or acoustic confusion effect) consists of poor serial recall performance for lists composed of similar‐sounding words compared to lists of dissimilar‐sounding items. Building on the work of Nairne and Kelley (1999), the extent to which this classical verbal short‐term memory effect changes over the course of a retention interval was investigated. The impact of the phonological similarity on memory performance over time was compared in three paradigms: order reconstruction, serial recall, and free recall. Participants were presented with two blocks of 15 lists composed of five monosyllabic words, one block containing phonologically similar words and the other phonologically distinct words. Recall occurred either after 2, 8, or 24 seconds retention interval filled with a digit shadowing task. Our results confirmed and extended those of Nairne and Kelley. In order reconstruction and serial recall tasks, a classical phonological similarity effect (i.e., decrement in performance with similar lists) was observed for the 2‐s retention interval. This effect disappeared after a brief period of digit shadowing (i.e., 8‐s delay) and a beneficial effect of similarity was observed for the 24‐s retention interval. In the free recall task, the phonological similarity produced better performance whatever the delay between presentation and recall. Those results are discussed in the light of Nairne's (1990a) feature model and confirm the role of item‐specific and inter‐item processes in order reconstruction, serial recall, and free recall. L'effet de similarité phonologique se manifeste par une performance de rappel plus faible lorsque les listes sont composées de mots dont la sonorité est proche que lorsque les mots sont de sonorité éloignée. Sur la base de la recherche de Nairne et Kelley (1999), nous nous sommes intéressés à la manière dont évolue cet effet classique de mémoire à court terme verbale dans le temps, C'est‐à‐dire à L'issue d'intervalles de rétention de durées variables. L'impact de la similarité phonologique sur la performance mnésique a été évaluée sur la base de trois paradigmes, la reconstruction de L'ordre, le rappel sériel et le rappel libre. Les participants ont été soumis à deux blocs de 15 listes comportant 5 mots monosyllabiques, un bloc comprenant des mots similaires phonologiquement et un bloc comprenant des mots dissimilaires phonologiquement. Le rappel est demandé après un intervalle de rétention d'une durée de 2, 8 ou 24 secondes durant lequel une tâche de shadowing de chiffres est proposée. Nos résultats confirment et étendent ceux obtenus par Nairne et Kelley. Pour les tâches de reconstruction de L'ordre et de rappel sériel, un effet de similarité phonologique classique (i.e., chute des performances pour les listes similaires) est observé avec un intervalle de rétention de 2 secondes. Cet effet disparaît après une courte période consacrée au shadowing de chiffres (i.e., 8 secondes) et un effet bénéfique de la similarité est observé pour un intervalle de rétention de 24 secondes. En rappel libre, la similarité phonologique provoque une amélioration des performances quel que soit le délai entre présentation et rappel. Ces résultats sont discutés à la lumière du modèle des traits de Nairne (1990a). Ils confirment le rôle des traitements spécifiques à L'item et des traitements inter‐items lors de tâches telles que la reconstruction de L'ordre, le rappel sériel et libre. El efecto de la similitud fonológica (o efecto de confusión acústica) se manifiesta en fallas en el recuerdo de series para las listas compuestas por palabras que tienen sonidos similares en comparación con aquéllas que poseen elementos distintos. Con base en el trabajo de Nairne en Kelley (1999), se investigó la medida en la que este efecto clásico de memoria reciente cambia a lo largo del curso de un intervalo de retención. El impacto de la similitud fonológica sobre el desempeño de la memoria a lo largo del tiempo se comparó en tres paradigmas, reconstrucción del orden, recuerdo de series y recuerdo libre. Se presentó a los participantes dos bloques de 15 listas compuestas por 5 palabras monosilábicas, un bloque contenía palabras fonológicamente similares y, el otro, palabras fonológicamente distintas. El recuerdo ocurrió después de un intervalo de retención de 2, 8 ó 24 segundos lleno de una tarea digital de sombreado. Los resultados confirmaron y extendieron los de Nairne en Kelley. En las tareas de reconstrucción del orden y en la recuerdo de series, se observó un efecto clásico de similitud fonológica para el intervalo de retención de 2 segundos (es decir, disminución de la ejecución con listas similares). Este efecto desapareció después de un breve periodo de sombreado digital (es decir, un retraso de 8 segundos) y se observó un efecto benéfico de similitud para el intervalo de retención de 24 segundos. En la tarea de recuerdo libre, la similitud fonológica produjo mejor ejecución independientemente del retraso entre la presentación y el recuerdo. Tales resultados se discuten a la luz del modelo de Nairne (1990a) y confirman el papel que desempeñan los procesos de reactivo específico e interreactivo en la reconstrucción del orden, y en el recuerdo de series y libre.     

Scale invariance in the retrieval of retrospective and prospective memories

How does memory retrieval depend on time scale? One strong hypothesis is that such retrieval is scale-invariant (i.e., invariant across different time scales). To test this hypothesis, three groups of participants were given 4 min to recall what they did yesterday, last week, or last year (retrospective memories), and 4 min to recall what they intended to do tomorrow, next week, or next year (prospective memories). In line with scale invariance, retrieval performance was indistinguishable across time scales, for both retrospective and prospective memory. An additional finding was that significantly more prospective memories were recalled than retrospective memories, confirming previous observations of the "intention-superiority effect" (Goschke & Kuhl, 1993).     

Mnemonic benefits of retrieval practice at short retention intervals

The testing effect refers to the retention benefit conferred by prior retrieval of information from memory. Although the testing effect is a robust phenomenon, a common assumption is that reliable memory benefits only emerge after long retention intervals of days or weeks. The present study focused on potential test-induced retention benefits for brief retention intervals on the order of minutes and tens of seconds. Participants in four experiments studied lists of words. Some of the items were subjected to an initial cued recall test, and others were re-presented for additional study. Free recall tests were administered in each experiment following retention intervals ranging from 30 s to 8 min. When initial retrieval practice was successful (Experiments 1 through 3), or feedback compensated for unsuccessful retrieval (Experiment 4), significant testing effects emerged at all retention intervals. Results are discussed in the context of a bifurcated item-distribution model and highlight the importance of initial test performance and the type of analysis employed when examining testing effect data.     

Romantic relationships and fading of affect for memories of the shared past

The tendency for the affect associated with positive autobiographical events to fade less over time than the affect associated with negative autobiographical events (the fading affect bias, FAB) has been observed in a variety of contexts, but numerous mediators have been reported. This current study searches for the FAB, and for potential moderators of the FAB, in the context of romantic relationship memories. Both nonsexual types of memories and sexual types of memories showed the FAB. Moreover, the FAB emerged for memories of current relationships, but not for memories of past failed relationships. The FAB also emerged for securely attached individuals, but not for individuals exhibiting other attachment styles. In addition, the FAB was moderated by relationship quality, (for failed relationships) need to belong, sexual esteem, and sexual depression. Implications of these findings both for memory and for relationships are discussed.     

Effects of retention intervals on receiver operating characteristics in artificial grammar learning

Current theories of memory suggest that recognition is composed of separate processes of familiarity and recollection (e.g. [Yonelinas, A. P. (2002). The nature of recollection and familiarity: a review of 30 years of research. Journal of Memory and Language, 46, 441-517]). A key feature of these two processes is that they decay, or are forgotten at different rates. The dual-process model has also been useful in understanding artificial grammar learning. We obtained evidence for recollection and familiarity in artificial grammar learning by analyses of receiver operating characteristics (ROC). Furthermore we found that these were dissociated by retention intervals of 14 days. The slope of the zROC curves deviated reliably from 1 immediately after study and increased towards 1 suggesting that recollection contributed to recognition decisions but declined over the 14-day period leaving familiarity as the only basis for recognition. These data show similar patterns to those observed in word-recognition [Gardiner, J. M., & Java, R. I. (1991). Forgetting in recognition memory with and without recollective experience. Memory &Cognition, 19, 617-623; Tunney, R. J. (submitted for publication). Changes in the subjective experience of recognition over time suggest independent processes] and confirm the view that recollection and familiarity are implicated in artificial grammar learning. Moreover, the data confirm the finding that recollection and familiarity-based memory show different patterns of forgetting.     

Compelling untruths: the effect of retention interval on content borrowing and vivid false memories

False memories are sometimes vivid and detailed. We proposed that the details that come to be associated with false memories may be produced by a process called content borrowing. In content borrowing, details from presented items are erroneously borrowed to corroborate the occurrence of the false memory item. In the present research we used think-out-loud protocols at both study and test to provide evidence for content borrowing in the DRM paradigm. We also demonstrated that content borrowing was more common after a 2-week delay, and was more common for critical lures than for missing exemplars.     

Effects of retention intervals on the magnitude of optokinetic rotation-induced taste aversions.

This study investigated the effects of different retention intervals on the magnitude of optokinetic rotation-induced conditioned taste aversions in humans. Two experiments were conducted. In Exp. 1, 20 subjects were divided into two groups, a CS-UCS group in which drinking soybean milk was paired with optokinetic rotation-induced gastric illness and a CS-Only group in which drinking soybean milk was not paired with optokinetic rotation. Analysis indicated that two days after pairing soybean milk drinking with optokinetic rotation, the subjects in the CS-UCS group had significantly reduced palatability ratings of soybean milk and lower consumption of soybean milk than those in the CS-Only group. In Exp. 2, 40 subjects were divided into four CS-UCS groups with 1-day, 3-day, 5 day, and 10-day retention intervals between the session of pairing soybean milk with optokinetic rotation and the session of retasting soybean milk. Analysis yielded no significant differences among four groups on palatability of soybean milk and consumption of soybean milk in the retasting session. It is concluded that optokinetic rotation is an effective unconditioned stimulus for conditioned taste aversions formation and that the aversion has a retention period of at least 10 days.     

Closure of autobiographical memories moderates their directive effect on behaviour

Specific autobiographical memories have been theorised to serve a directive function, whereby the content of the memory directs behaviour outside awareness. The present research tested whether the extent to which a memory feels low in closure, or psychologically not in the past, moderates this directive effect. A total of 163 participants in an online experiment were asked to recollect a specific autobiographical memory of a time they had failed to donate to charity, or were not asked to recollect a memory. Those who recollected a memory were randomly assigned to think of the memory as high versus low in closure. Recollecting an autobiographical memory made to feel low in closure led to more memory-relevant behaviour than either recollecting a memory made to feel high in closure, or no memory at all. Moreover, the directive effect of a low-closure memory occurred whether participants were made aware of an upcoming behavioural opportunity or not. Discussion centres on possible processes linking low closure and behaviour, as well as implications for the self-memory system theory of autobiographical memory.