Personality disorder and violence: making the link through risk formulation

The extant research demonstrates that the combination of personality disorder and violence implies severe dysfunction, poor responsivity to treatment, more serious and persistent violence, and higher recidivism rates. Thus, it comes as no surprise that personality disorder is included in many of the available guidelines for assessing and managing violence. Unsurprisingly, the combination of personality pathology and violence frequently presents the greatest challenge to services, even those in whom violence risk assessment and management practice is established and routine. Conceptual and methodological limitations pervade the literature and a full explanation of the nature of the association between personality pathology and violence is still awaited. Furthermore, current approaches to risk assessment fail to provide a systematic framework for assessors to use to make sense of the heterogeneous presentations typically found in individuals with personality disorder and violence. In this paper, formulation is proposed as the critical process linking risk assessment and risk management. It is argued that assessors must move beyond a simple listing of risk factors and should instead produce detailed, comprehensive, individualized explanations of risk potential and risk management needs. Personality disorder is used in this paper to illustrate the important contribution of formulation to the risk assessment process, and in doing so, the link between personality pathology and violence is explored.     

Analysis of early representations and personality among victims of domestic violence

IntroductionThis exploratory study analyses the individual elements of the victims of domestic violence through life events, early dysfunctional representations and personality.ObjectivesThis research aims, firstly, to show the existence of early traumatic experiences for the victims of domestic violence. Secondly, it aims to measure the prevalence of early maladaptive schema and identify personality traits in these subjects. Finally, our aim is to highlight that depending on the violence carried out within the couple (reciprocal/unilateral), activated schemas and personality traits are different.MethodOur sample consists of 80 female subjects, non-abused women (n = 40) and victims of domestic violence (n = 40), of which 22 victims of unilateral violence and 18 victims of reciprocal violence. Participants filled out an initial questionnaire as well as the scales and self-report questionnaires as follows: Life events (Amiel-Lebigre, 1984); TCI (Cloninger et al., 1993); YSQ-S3 (Young et al., 2005). The data were subject to statistical analysis and were processed using the software SPSS 22.ResultsThe results show that the victims have experienced more early traumas than non-victims, that schemas (emotional deprivation, mistrust and abuse, subjugation, self-sacrifice) are more active. We note also different personality traits according to the different groups (victims/non-victims) and subgroups (reciprocal violence/unilateral violence).ConclusionOur study sheds light on the role of the individual elements of the victims on the perception of the relationship and on the process of engagement and disengagement of women in abusive relationships. Limits and expectations of the study are discussed.     

The role of psychopathic personality disorder in violence risk assessments using the HCR-20

Antisocial and psychopathic traits are essential to evaluate when assessing risk for violence using the HCR-20. The role of the PCL-R on the HCR-20 was investigated using a series of meta-analytic tests. Across 34 samples in which both tools were rated, AUCs for violence were similar (～.69), and exclusion of the psychopathy item (H7) did not reduce the HCR-20's accuracy. Quantitative synthesis of results from multivariate analyses conducted in 7 raw datasets that used both tools demonstrated that the average probability of observing violence for every point increase on the HCR-20 (without H7), while controlling for the PCL-R, was 23%, whereas for the PCL-R it was -1%. The HCR-20 (without H7) added incremental validity to the PCL-R, whereas the converse was not true, and only the HCR-20 (without H7) possessed unique predictive validity. Results suggest the HCR-20's predictive validity was not negatively impacted by excluding the PCL-R. Areas for future study are discussed, including research on various ways to assess and incorporate into risk assessment personality traits related to violence.     

Personality and situational correlates of self-reported reasons for intimate partner violence among women versus men referred for batterers' intervention

This study examines personality and situational correlates of self-reported reasons for intimate partner violence (IPV) among women and men court-ordered to batterers' intervention as IPV offenders. Women endorsed self-defense and men retaliation as their primary reasons for IPV. Both also endorsed emotion dysregulation as a reason for much of their violence. Women's partner violence was largely, but not exclusively, situationally motivated. Women's reasons for violence also related significantly to self-reported borderline personality symptomology. Men's reasons for IPV related primarily to their self-reported antisocial and borderline personality traits, not to situational factors. Thus, the IPV of some women and some men may be considered "characterological," in that it reflects something about the individual's character or personality. Control or domination of one's partner was not a primary reason for violence among women or men, despite the assumption on which many batterer intervention programs are based, that IPV is primarily a power and control tactic. Clinical implications and recommendations for future research are provided.     

When white collar criminals turn to fatal violence: The impact of narcissism and psychopathy

The present article takes as its point of departure Perri's view, according to whom the impact of personality traits such as psychopathy and narcissism has unduly been omitted in research on white collar criminality. However, this article argues that although such factors have an important role to play in some cases when white collar criminals turn violent in order to prevent the detection of their felonies, they constitute neither the necessary nor the sufficient conditions for white collar criminals to commit murders. This means on the one hand that, although potentially increasing the risk for violence, these traits are not by themselves sufficient as the triggers of violent acts and can function so only under certain social‐contextual circumstances. However, such personality traits are not by themselves necessary, as there can be empirical cases of fraud detection murder committed by white collar criminals lacking them. This position is supported by both a logical analysis of Perri's main arguments and by empirical evidence, consisting of a few real‐life cases of Scandinavian white collar criminals who have “turned red.”     

Perceived risk of female infidelity moderates the relationship between men’s personality and partner-directed violence

We hypothesized that men’s personality traits interact with men’s perceived risk of partner’s infidelity to predict men’s partner-directed violence. Moderation analyses of data provided by 467 men in a committed relationship indicated that: (1) men with lower emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, and men who perceived greater risk of partner infidelity perpetrated more partner-directed violence, and (2) the relationship between men’s personality traits and partner-directed violence depends on their perceptions of the risk of partner infidelity. Simple slope analyses indicated that: (a) men’s emotional stability and agreeableness predict partner-directed violence only when perceived risk of partner infidelity is low, and (b) men’s conscientiousness predicts partner-directed violence only when perceived risk of partner infidelity is high.     

Assessment of "juvenile psychopathy" and its association with violence: a critical review

Interest in the construct of psychopathy as it applies to children and adolescents has become an area of considerable research interest in the past 5-10 years, in part due to the clinical utility of psychopathy as a predictor of violence among adult offenders. Despite interest in "juvenile psychopathy" in general and its relationship to violence in particular, relatively few studies specifically have examined whether operationalizations of this construct among children and adolescents predict various forms of aggression. This article critically reviews this literature, as well as controversies regarding the assessment of adult psychopathic "traits" among juveniles. Existing evidence indicates a moderate association between measures of psychopathy and various forms of aggression, suggesting that this construct may be relevant for purposes of short-term risk appraisal and management among juveniles. However, due to the enormous developmental changes that occur during adolescence and the absence of longitudinal research on the stability of this construct (and its association with violence), we conclude that reliance on psychopathy measures to make decisions regarding long-term placements for juveniles is contraindicated at this time.     

A growth curve analysis of emotion dysregulation as a mediator for violence in individuals with and without borderline personality disorder

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is characterized by significant interpersonal conflict, however the factors that contribute to violence among this population are not well known. Individuals with BPD and other severe mental illnesses were followed in the community for 30 weeks post-inpatient discharge. Emotion dysregulation data and detailed measures of violence were collected every 10 weeks, along with measures of antisocial characteristics. Latent growth curve analyses were used to depict individual trajectories of emotion dysregulation throughout the course of the study, and the degree to which changes in emotion dysregulation mediated the risk-enhancing effect of BPD on subsequent interpersonal violence was assessed. Results showed that emotion dysregulation is a significant longitudinal mediator of violent behavior among individuals with BPD, and may serve as the primary mechanism that enhances risk for violence among this population. Implications for modifying existing treatment protocols to reduce interpersonal violence in this population are discussed.     

Connecting DSM-5 Personality Traits and Pathological Beliefs: Toward a Unifying Model

Dissatisfaction with the DSM-IV model of personality disorders has led to the development of alternative conceptualizations, including pathological trait models and models linked to particular theoretical approaches, such as Beck and Freeman’s (1990) cognitive framework. An important issue involves the potential to interweave such models into a single, parsimonious system that combines their distinct advantages. In this study, pathological trait and dysfunctional belief data from 616 individuals in a non-clinical sample were evaluated for commensurability using structural equation modeling. These models can be integrated via five higher-order factors, and that specific dimensions of dysfunctional beliefs can be differentiated based on features of the DSM-5 trait model. Overall, these results suggest that traits provide scaffolding for individual differences in pathological personality, within which dysfunctional beliefs offer specific vectors for clinical intervention in a cognitive framework. Implications of the empirical commensurability of trait and cognitive models are discussed.     

A systematic review of the association between attributional bias/interpersonal style,and violence in schizophrenia/psychosis

Despite the widely recognized link between schizophrenia and violence, the illness-specific factors underlying that association remain unclear. A body of work has implicated deficits in social cognition, consistently seen in schizophrenia, that may mediate the risk of violence. Two specific areas of interest are attributional bias and interpersonal style. We conducted a systematic literature search using EMBASE, Scopus, Ovid Medline, PsycINFO and Science Direct databases with search terms relating to attributional bias, interpersonal style and violence/aggression in schizophrenia. Eleven studies were identified, six related specifically to attributional bias and five to interpersonal style. Results suggest an association between hostile and externalizing attribution biases, and violence in schizophrenia. Furthermore, hostile, dominant, and coercive interpersonal styles are also frequently associated with violence in schizophrenia. An interaction between cognitive impairments and underlying personality traits, as well as other co-morbid or illness factors, is proposed to likely underpin associations with violence in schizophrenia. Conclusions are limited by methodological constraints. The field would benefit from consistent definitions of violence, and a more systematic approach to cognitive assessment. Furthermore, studies with more homogeneous samples; and longitudinal designs are warranted in order to gain a better understanding of causation with regard to illness factors specific to schizophrenia.     

Natural born killers: The genetic origins of extreme violence

The current article examines the influence of genetics and evolution on acts of extreme and criminal violence among human primates. Moderate aggression can function to increase an organism's reproductive success; extreme violence can place the organism at unnecessary risk. Genetic polymorphisms that have been linked to extreme acts of violence are reviewed as is research elucidating how genetic risk and environmental stress may interact to increase risk of extreme violence. Extreme violence is viewed as high-end variance in an evolutionarily adaptive process in which the propensity for aggression and violent behavior, in moderate doses, has been adaptive for individual humans.     

Personality,the Dark Triad and violence

Aggression involves using force to dominate a situation, whereas violence uses force to do intentional harm. Previous research suggests the Dark Triad underlies much anti-social behaviour, and is associated with aggression. We extend this work to examine whether Dark Triad constructs predict self-reported violence. The Dark Triad, measured using the SD3, was examined in relation to normal personality traits as indexed by the HEXACO, which comprises a general Big Five structure with the addition of an Honest–Humility dimension. We also measured impulsivity using the I-7. A sample of 159 adults completed the measures. Principal Components Analysis revealed Machiavellianism, psychopathy and violence loaded on the same factor, which also had negative loadings for HEXACO domains of Honesty–Humility and Agreeableness. Narcissism loaded on a separate factor which was also defined by Extraversion. Hierarchical regression analyses found Agreeableness a more powerful predictor of violence than psychopathy or Machiavellianism, both of which showed a trend to this association; narcissism had no effect. Agreeableness emerged as the strongest negative predictor of violence, and exclusively explained the majority of variance in violence scores. Findings are discussed regarding the centrality of low agreeableness as a driving force behind the Dark Triad and the constructs it predicts.     

Personality and the perception of TV violence

An experiment was carried out to investigate relationships between individuals' personality characteristics and their perceptions of violent TV portrayals. A panel of 40 viewers rated brief violent episodes from five categories of programming, contemporary British crime-detective series, American police series, westerns, science-fiction series and cartoons on eight scales. These responses were then related to viewers' scores on the N, E and P dimensions of the EPQ. Results showed that violent scores from contemporary settings were rated as more serious than scores from non-contemporary and fantastic settings. In addition, viewers exhibited individual differences in ratings of TV violence which were related to certain of their EPQ scores. In particular, high N scorers tended to perceive violence generally, but especially that from contemporary British drama, as more serious than did low N scorers. This study indicates the need to include personality measures in the analysis of audience reactions to TV violence.     

Personality differences between alcohol abusers and matched controls: Relation to frontal symptoms and subtypes of addicts

Epidemiological studies usually show a link between personality disorders and addictions. Dimensional models of personality, such as that of Cloninger, are able to diagnose and discriminate between transient dysfunctional behavior styles and relatively more stable traits. Certain brain areas have been proposed, as trait locations, based on their activation. This paper explores differences in personality traits among a sample of alcohol abusers (N= 95) and a control group of non-clinical population (N= 95), matched in sociodemographic variables, using the TCI-R-67 and the FrSBe-Sp. It is hypothesized that such differences are associated with frontal symptomatology. The existence of different subgroups of addicts based on certain combinations of traits is also analyzed. Results showed significant differences in two temperament traits (Novelty Seeking and Harm Avoidance) and a characterial trait (Self-Direction). We also found a correlation with a large effect size between these traits and frontal symptomatology. Cluster analysis classified the participants into several subtypes with different combinations of traits that matched diverse frontal symptomatology. Possible neurobiological explanations of these differences and their importance in the clinical practice are discussed.     

Traits and trade-offs are insufficient for evolutionary personality psychology

Comments on the article by D. Nettle, who has clearly shown that evolutionary psychologists need to focus more attention on individual differences, not just species-typical universals. Such differences are not mere "noise," and evolutionary theory will gain by understanding how they are produced and maintained. However, by focusing on personality traits and the five-factor personality model, Nettle left unaddressed many of the most important aspects of human personality. An evolutionary psychology of personality must ultimately explain not just trait differences but also differences in personal goals, values, motives, identities, and life narratives--essential elements of human individuality and functionality. K. M. Sheldon et al suggest four reasons why traits and the five-factor personality model do not provide an optimal approach for explaining the evolution of personality: (a) As constructs, traits provide little purchase for explaining the causes of behavior; (b) trait concepts do not acknowledge or explain people's variations around their own baselines, variations that are likely crucial for adaptation; (c) traits do not explain or even describe true human uniqueness, i.e. the ways in which a person is different from everybody else; and (d) traits do not explain personality from the inside, by considering what people are trying to do in their lives. In raising these issues Sheldon et al are suggesting that the important question for evolutionary personality study is not why people fall at different points on a continuum regarding traits x, y, and z, but rather why each person is inevitably unique while still sharing the same evolved psychology.     

Cognitions supportive of violence and violent behavior

The role of cognitions supportive of violence is acknowledged in many theories of violent behavior. Despite this, relatively little attention has been paid in research to the cognitions that contribute to violence at an individual level. The aim here was to conduct a systematic review of studies examining the impact of violence-related cognitions on non-sexual violence. Five studies were identified and these studies reported the use of five measures of violence-related cognition, namely, the EXPAGG, a Life Map, the ‘My Life’ checklist, the Provictim Scale, and the Maudsley Violence Questionnaire. The studies indicated that scales of instrumental aggression were positively related to self-reported violence in both prison and non-offender samples. Beliefs supportive of violence were also positively related to violence. This suggests that viewing aggression as means to achieve positive outcome is a risk factor for violence. By contrast, scores on an expressive aggression scale were inversely related to violence indicting that loss of control and guilt about behavior are protective factors against violence. Also, pro-victim attitudes were inversely related to violence. These scales tap the self-conscious moral emotions and recognition of these emotions may be important in violence inhibition. There is clearly a need to extend the identification of cognitions supportive of violence. This would aid research into individual-level violence and contribute to the development of effective interventions to reduce violence.     

Use of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory in the psychological assessment of domestic violence: A review

An Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI)-based literature review found that the personality disorders of antisocial, aggressive–sadistic, passive–aggressive (negativistic), and, to some extent, narcissistic are more prevalent in the MCMI profile codes of male spouse abusers. There is a relative absence of Axis I syndromes, although substance abuse of moderate intensity was also extant in these profiles. Some patients produced a normal profile on the MCMI, and their domestic violence may not be a product of a personality disorder. We conclude that the MCMI may be a useful instrument to assess the personality of males in treatment for domestic violence. Elevations of these defined scales may be used as markers to evaluate personality styles at risk for domestic abuse.     

Innovation and the ‘Dark Side’ of Personality: Dysfunctional Traits and their Relation to Self‐Reported Innovative Characteristics

This paper explores the relationship between self‐reported innovative characteristics and dysfunctional personality traits. Participants (N = 207) from a range of occupations completed the Innovation Potential Indicator (IPI) and the Hogan Development Survey (HDS). Those who reported innovative characteristics also reported the following dysfunctional traits: Arrogant, Manipulative, Dramatic, Eccentric; and lower levels of Cautious, Perfectionist and Dependent. A representative approximation of the higher order factor “moving against people” (Hogan & Hogan, 1997) was positively associated with innovative characteristics. It is concluded that innovation potential may be viewed as a positive effect of some otherwise dysfunctional traits, most notably those encompassed under the second‐order HDS factor ‘moving against people’.     

Combating intimate partner violence in Africa: Opportunities and challenges in five African countries

Recent research results emerging from Africa show a worrying situation regarding the levels of intimate partner violence (IPV) in various countries in the continent — levels that are quite high and place great financial burden on individuals and governments. This paper explores the magnitude, nature, and risk factors of IPV in five African countries, namely, Morocco, Nigeria, Namibia, Uganda, and Tanzania. The focus of the paper is to explore issues of IPV in these countries by considering the opportunities in each country that could assist in the prevention of violence, and also to identify inherent challenges that may pose threats to efforts in reducing the high IPV prevalence. As there are only limited studies on IPV in developing countries, new insights provided by this paper would afford relevant stakeholders a better understanding of the issue.