Men appear more lateralized when noticing emotion in male faces

Empirical tests of the "right hemisphere dominance" versus "valence" theories of emotion processing are confounded by known sex differences in lateralization. Moreover, information about the sex of the person posing an emotion might be processed differently by men and women because of an adaptive male bias to notice expressions of threat and vigilance in other male faces. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether sex of poser and emotion displayed influenced lateralization in men and women by analyzing "laterality quotient" scores on a test which depicts vertically split chimeric faces, formed with one half showing a neutral expression and the other half showing an emotional expression. We found that men (N = 50) were significantly more lateralized for emotions indicative of vigilance and threat (happy, sad, angry, and surprised) in male faces relative to female faces and compared to women (N = 44). These data indicate that sex differences in functional cerebral lateralization for facial emotion may be specific to the emotion presented and the sex of face presenting it.     

Cultural variations in the sexual marketplace: gender equality correlates with more sexual activity

Sexual economics theory assumes that heterosexual communities can be analyzed as marketplaces in which men offer women resources such as love, respect, money, and commitment in exchange for sex. In response to economic, political, and other disadvantages, women collectively restrict their sexuality to maintain a low supply relative to male demand, thereby ensuring a high price. Hence, we tested the hypothesis that sexual norms and practices would be more restrictive in countries marked by gender inequality than in countries where the genders were more equal. An international online sex survey (N>317,000) yielded four measures of sexual activity, and 37 nations' means on all four measures were correlated with independent (World Economic Forum) ratings of gender equality. Consistent with predictions, relatively high gender equality was associated with more casual sex, more sex partners per capita, younger ages for first sex, and greater tolerance/approval of premarital sex.     

Automatic attention towards face or body as a function of mating motivation

Because women?s faces and bodies carry different cues of reproductive value, men may attend to different perceptual cues as functions of their long-term versus short-term mating motivations. We tested this hypothesis in three experiments on 135 male and 132 female participants. When influenced by short-term rather than long-term mating motivations, men?s attention was captured by (Study 1), was shifted to (Study 2), and was distracted by (Study 3) the waist/hip area rather than the face on photographs of attractive women. Similar effects were not found among the female participants in response to photographs of attractive men. These results support the evolutionary view that, similar to the attentional selectivity found in other domains of life, male perceptual attention has evolved to selectively capture and hold reproductive information about the opposite sex as a function of short-term versus long-term mating goals.     

Monthly fluctuation in task concentration in female college students.

50 university women with consistent and rhythmic menstrual cycles were given Golden's version of the Stroop color-word test to evaluate their concentration accuracy. 50 male undergraduates were also tested as a control sample. The participants took the Stroop test every seven days for four consecutive weeks to allow examination of whether change in the color and word naming activity occurred. A split-plot analysis of the variance of the scores gave a significant difference for the sequence in which the tests were taken, the measures recited during the testing, and the sex of the respondent. When the values for the women were ordered to correspond to stages of their menstrual cycle, the over-all mean accuracy rose slowly to midcycle, then dropped as menses approached. This supports the hypothesis that the women's concentration was at the lowest level during the latter part of the monthly cycle. Women scored significantly higher on the color and word naming task on the Stroop test than men.     

Cultural Variations in the Sexual Marketplace: Gender Equality Correlates With More Sexual Activity

ABSTRACT

Sexual economics theory assumes that heterosexual communities can be analyzed as marketplaces in which men offer women resources such as love, respect, money, and commitment in exchange for sex. In response to economic, political, and other disadvantages, women collectively restrict their sexuality to maintain a low supply relative to male demand, thereby ensuring a high price. Hence, we tested the hypothesis that sexual norms and practices would be more restrictive in countries marked by gender inequality than in countries where the genders were more equal. An international online sex survey (N>317,000) yielded four measures of sexual activity, and 37 nations' means on all four measures were correlated with independent (World Economic Forum) ratings of gender equality. Consistent with predictions, relatively high gender equality was associated with more casual sex, more sex partners per capita, younger ages for first sex, and greater tolerance/approval of premarital sex.     

Predictors of how often and when people fall in love

A leading theory of romantic love is that it functions to make one feel committed to one's beloved, as well as to signal this commitment to the beloved (Frank, 1988). Because women tend to be skeptical of men's commitment, this view entails that men may have evolved to fall in love first, in order to show their commitment to women. Using a sample of online participants of a broad range of ages, this study tested this sex difference and several related individual difference hypotheses concerning the ease of falling in love. There was mixed evidence for sex differences: only some measures indicated that men are generally more love-prone than are women. We also found that men were more prone to falling in love if they tended to overestimate women's sexual interest and highly valued physical attractiveness in potential partners. Women were more prone to falling in love if they had a stronger sex drive. These results provide modest support for the existence of sex differences in falling in love, as well as initial evidence for links between several individual difference variables and the propensity to fall in love.     

Arbitrary Social Norms Influence Sex Differences in Romantic Selectivity

ABSTRACT— Men tend to be less selective than women when evaluating and pursuing potential romantic partners. The present experiment employed speed-dating procedures to test a novel explanation for this sex difference: The mere act of physically approaching a potential romantic partner (vs. being approached), a behavior that is more characteristic of men than of women, increases one's attraction to that partner. This hypothesis was supported in a sample of speed daters ( N = 350) who attended a heterosexual event where either men (eight events) or women (seven events) rotated from one partner to the next while members of the other sex remained seated. Rotators were significantly less selective than were sitters, which meant that the tendency for men to be less selective than women at events where men rotated disappeared at events where women rotated. These effects were mediated by increased self-confidence among rotators relative to sitters.     

A reproductive threat-based model of evolved sex differences in jealousy

Although heterosexual women and men consistently demonstrate sex differences in jealousy, these differences disappear among lesbians and gay men as well as among heterosexual women and men contemplating same-sex infidelities (infidelities in which the partner and rival are the same sex). Synthesizing these past findings, the present paper offers a reproductive threat-based model of evolved sex differences in jealousy that predicts that the sexes will differ only when the jealous perceivers' reproductive outcomes are differentially at risk. This model is supported by data from a web-based study in which lesbians, gay men, bisexual women and men, and heterosexual women and men responded to a hypothetical infidelity scenario with the sex of the rival randomly determined. After reading the scenario, participants indicated which type of infidelity (sexual versus emotional) would cause greater distress. Consistent with predictions, heterosexual women and men showed a sex difference when contemplating opposite-sex infidelities but not when contemplating same-sex infidelities, whereas lesbians and gay men showed no sex difference regardless of whether the infidelity was opposite-sex or same-sex.     

Sex differences in response to a panicogenic challenge procedure: an experimental evaluation of panic vulnerability in a non-clinical sample

Epidemiological studies show that women are twice as likely as men to develop panic disorder (PD) during their lifetimes. Data from retrospective studies also suggest that women are more distressed by panic and other negative emotional states than men, and that this tendency may precede the development of PD. The present prospective study sought to expand this work by evaluating sex differences in the predisposition to panic in individuals without PD or other forms of psychopathology. Participants (N=96; 52 women) were exposed to 12 panicogenic inhalations of 20% CO2-enriched air while physiological (e.g., heart rate, electrodermal response, Frontalis EMG) and self-report (e.g., subject distress, fear, frequency and severity of DSM-IV panic symptoms) response domains were monitored. As expected, magnitude of autonomic responding failed to reliably discriminate between women and men. Yet, women reported more fear and panic immediately following the challenge procedure relative to men, and this sex difference persisted when assessed again 30 min post-challenge. Implications of these results are discussed broadly in the context of biopsychosocial accounts of sex differences in the clinical presentation of PD.     

Covariation of sex differences in mental rotation with body size

Sex difference in mental rotation ability was reconsidered. The Vandenberg-Kuse figures were administered to 120 male and 76 female students from the Medical School of BlackSea Technical University in Trabzon, Turkey to assess the mental rotation ability. Students' height and weight were measured. As expected, men outperformed women on this test and had greater height and weight. Number correct on mental rotation test significantly correlated with height and weight for the total sample and for men, but only with weight for women. Using weight as covariate, the sex difference was no longer significant. The mean mental rotation score was significantly higher for heavy women than for light men. There was a positive correlation between weight and mental rotation test scores for heavy women, but height and weight were negatively correlated with mental rotation test scores for light men. These results suggest that there is no sex difference in mental rotation ability as measured.     

Nonverbal communication affect in children.

A paradign was tested for measuting the tendency of children to send accurate nonverbal signals to others via spontaneous facial expressions and gestures. This paradign was derived from studies on adults that suggest that women are more accurate nonverbal "sendres" than men in certain situations. Eighteeen male and 11 female preschoolers (aged 4 to 6 years) watched a series of emotionally loaded color slides while they were observed via a hidden television camera by their mothers. Results indicated that significant overall communciation occurred, with large individual differences in "sending ability" between children. There was no evidence of a large sex difference in sending ability in choldren, although on one measure girls were more accurate senders than boys when viewed by undergraduates. Sending ability was positively related to teacher's ratings of activity level, aggressiveness, impulsiveness, bossiness, sociability, etc., and negatively related ti shyness, cooperation, emotional inhibition and control, etc.     

Sexuality and Religious Commitment in the United States: An Empirical Examination

I provide an empirical assessment of the religious commitments of gays, lesbians, and bisexuals in the United States. I compare the religiosity of gay men and lesbians and bisexuals to each other and to male and female heterosexuals, while controlling for a host of sociodemographic factors that may contribute to differences across the gender/sexuality groups. To accomplish this, I examine data from the 1991–2000 General Social Surveys (GSS). During this period, the GSS asked respondents for the sex of their sex partners over the last five years. The GSS finds that 4.3 percent of men and 3.1 percent of women report same-sex sexual partners in the five years preceding the interview—this is a larger proportion than members of "other" races, Episcopalians, or Jews. I find that gay men have high rates of religious participation, while lesbians and bisexuals have significantly lower rates of participation. Nonheterosexuals are more likely to become apostates when compared to female heterosexuals, but no more so than are heterosexual men. My findings are at odds with religious pundits who suggest that alternative sexuality mixes with religion more often for females than for males. The results are in concert with contemporary theories regarding the formation of religious preferences, and risk preferences and religiosity.     

Subgroup analysis of sex difference on the Vandenberg-Kuse mental rotation test

A large sex difference has been elicited on the Vandenberg-Kuse mental rotation test. Prior research emphasizes the biological root of this sex difference. In recent experiments we confirmed this viewpoint. A large sample was administered the test, and the distributions of scores for men and women (N = 138; 68 men and 70 women: ages 19 to 23 years). The mean scores were used as cut-off points to group the men and the women in different subgroups (Low/Women, High/Women, Low/Men, High/Men). There were large differences among all subgroups, reinforcing Kimura's testosterone hypothesis for sex differences in spatial ability.     

Evidence from a homosexual sample for a sex‐specific rival‐oriented mechanism: Jealousy as a function of a rival's physical attractiveness and dominance

Among heterosexual women in particular, a rival's physical attractiveness evokes jealousy, whereas among heterosexual men in particular, a rival's dominance evokes feelings of jealousy. The present study conducted with gay men and lesbian women examined whether these sex‐differentiated responses reflect an evolved sex‐specific rival‐oriented mechanism according to which males and females pay attention to different rival characteristics or an evolved general partner‐oriented mechanism, according to which males and females pay attention to those characteristics that their actual and potential partners find important. In an experiment, using a 2 (Participant Sex) × 2 (Rival Physical Attractiveness) × 2 (Rival Dominance) mixed factor design, homosexual participants were presented with a scenario in which their partners were flirting with an individual of the same sex. Lesbian women, but not gay men, reported more jealousy when they were exposed to a physically attractive rival as compared with a physically unattractive rival. Gay males, but not lesbian women, reported more jealousy when they were exposed to a rival high in dominance as compared with a rival low in dominance, especially when exposed to a physically unattractive rival. In addition, among women high in dominance, a dominant rival evoked relatively less jealousy, and among women high in social comparison orientation, an unattractive rival evoked relatively more jealousy. It is concluded that males and females posses an evolved sex‐specific rival‐oriented mechanism through which they respond more or less automatically to those rival characteristics that have been important in sexual selection in our evolutionary past.     

Perceived benefits of marathon running in males and females

The differences in both perceived benefits and attitudes toward running between male and female runners, and between runners who classified themselves as competitive runners (CR) or recreational runners (RR), was the focus of this study. Four-hundred and two runners completed the Ten-Minute Survey for Runners within two weeks of completing a marathon. RR, more so than CR, perceived greater benefits from running. However, CR expressed a more positive attitude toward running and its role in their lives than did RR. Men perceived running to be more beneficial to them than women. However, women, more so than men, felt running had a positive effect on self-image and their lives were richer because of running. Future research concerns on the effects of competition on the lives of women are explored.     

Gender differences in erotic plasticity: the female sex drive as socially flexible and responsive

Responding to controversies about the balance between nature and culture in determining human sexuality, the author proposes that the female sex drive is more malleable than the male in response to sociocultural and situational factors. A large assortment of evidence supports 3 predictions based on the hypothesis of female erotic plasticity: (a) Individual women will exhibit more variation across time than men in sexual behavior, (b) female sexuality will exhibit larger effects than male in response to most specific sociocultural variables, and (c) sexual attitude-behavior consistency will be lower for women than men. Several possible explanations for female erotic plasticity are reviewed, including adaptation to superior male political and physical power, the centrality of female change (from no to yes) as a prerequisite for intercourse, and the idea that women have a milder sex drive than men.     

Predicting Men's Rape Perceptions Based on the Belief That "No" Really Means "Yes"

This study tested men's perceptions of rape based on the belief that women use token resistance to sex—that they say "no" to sex when they really mean "yes." Participants were 131 male undergraduates who completed the Token Resistance to Sex scale and responded to evaluative statements regarding 1 of 3 scenarios: rape, consent, or ambiguous. Results supported the hypothesis that men with a weaker belief in token resistance would have stronger perceptions of rape when a woman said "no" to sex than when a woman said "yes," and that men with a stronger belief in token resistance would have weak perceptions of rape in both situations. These findings implicate miscommunication as a potential contributing factor in date rape.     

不同性别比和童年经济状况对未婚男性性态度的影响

基于进化心理学的生命史理论,通过两个实验探讨性别比和童年经济状况同男性性态度间的关系。实验1和实验2分别采用图片和文字材料启动被试的性别比感知,结果发现感知性别比和童年经济状况对未婚男性的"随意性行为"态度表现出显著的交互效应：童年家庭经济状况差的未婚男性在感知到周围女性数量相对充裕的情境下,其性开放态度会较感知到周围男性数量充裕时明显上升;童年家庭富裕的男性的性开放态度在不同感知性别比下保持相对稳定。     

不同性别比和童年经济状况对未婚男性性态度的影响

基于进化心理学的生命史理论,通过两个实验探讨性别比和童年经济状况同男性性态度间的关系。实验1和实验2分别采用图片和文字材料启动被试的性别比感知,结果发现感知性别比和童年经济状况对未婚男性的"随意性行为"态度表现出显著的交互效应：童年家庭经济状况差的未婚男性在感知到周围女性数量相对充裕的情境下,其性开放态度会较感知到周围男性数量充裕时明显上升;童年家庭富裕的男性的性开放态度在不同感知性别比下保持相对稳定。