再探人工语法学习迁移效应机制

通过两个实验,检验人工语法学习迁移效应产生机制的组块信息迁移和抽象类比迁移假说.结果表明:当序列表层结构不同时,被试能够学习和迁移非重复成分间的序列依存性.学习序列与语法测验序列分布特征间的匹配会影响非重复成分间依存性的迁移;重复成分间序列依存性的迁移.在一定程度上不以序列的分布特征为基础.     

非熟练中—英双语者跨语言长时重复启动效应

采用跨语言长时重复启动研究范式进一步探讨非熟练中－英双语者的记忆表征模型。被试为华南师范大学大一本科生共140名。实验自变量是语言条件（同语言和跨语言）和学习状况（学习过的和未学习过的）,实验因变量是单词判断的反应时和正确率。实验1中被试在学习和测验阶段都完成概念任务,结果表明获得了跨语言长时重复启动效应。实验2中被试在学习和测验阶段完成词汇任务,结果表明没有获得跨语言长时重复启动效应。实验3中被试在学习阶段完成概念任务,在测验阶段完成词汇任务,结果表明没有获得跨语言长时重复启动效应。实验4中在学习阶段的概念任务中呈现汉语单字词,在测验阶段的词汇任务中呈现英语翻译对等词,结果表明没有获得跨语言长时重复启动效应。总的实验结果表明,在基于内隐记忆的跨语言重复启动的范式下,非熟练中－英双语者的记忆表征支持概念表征共享、词汇表征分离的观点。更重要的是,非熟练中－英双语者需要经由汉语翻译对等词的词汇表征,才能通达英语单词的概念表征,支持了词汇连接模型的观点     

内隐学习中的知识习得及其无意识性测量*

本研究采用经典的人工语法范式,并引入迁移任务探讨在记忆和规则探索两种指导语条件下,被试所习得的究竟是规则还是组块？同时采用结构知识主观测量的方法,对内隐学习习得知识的无意识性进行测量。结果发现记忆指导语条件下的被试能成功区分合法串和非法串,即出现语法学习效应,但规则探索指导语条件下的被试并没有表现出语法或组块学习效应,结构知识的主观测量发现这种内隐学习的优势效应主要来自无意识结构知识的贡献;在迁移研究中发现附带学习组和有意学习组均在迁移任务上表现出语法学习效应,这表明在人工语法学习中所获得的语法规则是抽象的和可迁移的。     

语言产生过程中非目标语言的激活与抑制

运用长时重复启动范式, 探讨熟练和非熟练中－英双语者语言产生过程中非目标语言的激活与抑制。实验1探讨双语被试在学习阶段使用中文进行图片命名任务时, 非目标语言英文概念层面的激活与抑制情况, 结果发现, 两种熟练水平的被试均没有出现重复启动效应; 实验2探讨双语被试在学习阶段使用英文进行图片命名任务时, 非目标语言中文概念层面的激活与抑制情况, 结果发现, 熟练双语被试没有出现重复启动效应, 而非熟练双语被试出现了重复启动效应; 实验3探讨非熟练双语被试在学习阶段使用英文进行图片命名任务时, 非目标语言中文词汇层面的激活与抑制情况, 结果没有出现重复启动效应。综合三个实验的结果可以表明, 熟练中－英双语者语言产生过程中在概念层面上就对非目标语言(不管是一语还是二语)进行了抑制, 而非熟练中－英双语者使用一语时可以在概念层面上抑制非目标语言(二语), 但使用二语时不能在概念层面上抑制非目标语言(一语), 要在词汇层面上才能抑制非目标语言(一语)。     

样例呈现方式对概念训练类别表征的影响

以往研究发现训练形式会影响类别学习的表征方式。实验采用学习-迁移范式,探究概念训练中样例的呈现方式对类别表征的影响。实验中被试通过不同呈现方式来学习类别知识,在学习3个block之后对其进行测验。实验结果表明:(1)学习单样例和同一类别比较学习的被试在测验阶段的成绩与学习阶段之间没有差异;(2)学习不同类别比较学习的被试在测验阶段的成绩大幅度下降。因此得出结论,在概念训练中,不同类别比较学习导致被试形成类别间信息的表征。     

不同负载条件对序列位置内隐学习的影响

序列反应时任务是继人工语法学习和复杂系统控制任务之后又一研究内隐学习的重要程式 ,该研究采用这种程式 ,比较了不同负载条件对序列位置内隐学习的影响。被试为华南师范大学本科生 6 0名。 3种负载条件分别为无负载、数字串记忆负载和反向反应负载。结果发现 ,数字记忆负载组被试与无负载组被试间内隐学习量差异显著 ,但对于不会破坏学习序列组织的反向负载组被试 ,其内隐学习量与无负载组差异不显著 ,却与数字记忆负载组间差异显著。这一结果说明序列反应时任务程式中的内隐学习不受加工容量的影响     

序列位置内隐学习产生机制的实验研究

内隐学习是当今认知和学习领域继内隐记忆之后又一重要的研究课题。该研究利用序列反应时研究程式,通过两个实验,对序列位置内隐学习产生的机制进行了探讨。结果表明：（１）在序列反应时任务程式中,随着反应一刺激间隔的延长,序列位置内隐学习的学习量逐渐减少;（２）异形同模式迁移组和异形异模式迁移组被试间内隐学习量无显著差异,被试未能内隐地习得抽象的序列模式。说明序列位置内隐学习产生的基础是水平联结,在该实验条件下没有发现垂直联结存在的证据。     

视觉时距知觉序列依赖效应的空间迁移性

个体当前的知觉反应不仅取决于当前的刺激输入,而且依赖于先前的感知经验,可表现为知觉的序列依赖效应。结合时距二分任务,通过3个实验系统改变先前试次和当前试次中刺激的位置关系,考察了时距知觉的序列依赖效应及其空间迁移性。结果发现,(1)先前试次的刺激时距导致了排斥性的刺激序列依赖效应,并且这种效应能够完全迁移到不同的空间位置;(2)先前试次的决策反应导致了吸引性的决策序列依赖效应,但该效应仅能部分迁移到不同的空间位置;(3)时距知觉的刺激和决策序列依赖效应的空间迁移性不受空间类型(外部空间vs.视网膜空间)的调节。这些结果在一定程度上反映了视觉时距知觉序列依赖效应产生的潜在神经位置:刺激序列依赖效应可能产生于对空间信息不敏感或具有较大感受野的较高级视觉加工脑区;决策序列依赖效应则可能源于具有类别组织功能的高级认知脑区。     

数学问题类比迁移的影响因素研究

类比迁移在人类的学习中有着不可替代的地位,但学科问题类比迁移的相关研究仍不充足。本文以数学问题解决为研究对象,探讨了数学问题类比迁移的影响因素。实验研究了问题相似性、被试特点(年级、元认知监控)对数学问题类比迁移的影响。实验结果表明:源靶问题间的表面相似性是影响类比迁移的主要因素,它既促进正迁移,也容易导致负迁移;不同年级被试解决数学问题成绩差异显著;被试在解决数学问题时的实时元认知监控与该问题的解决相关显著。     

直觉对内隐学习优势效应的特异性贡献

已有人工语法的内隐学习研究中一个关键的问题是被试在不同指导语诱发下究竟形成了什么样的知识表征？实验借助结构知识的测量方式, 采用记忆和规则探索两种指导语, 考察了两组被试所获得的深层知识表征(结构知识)。结果发现：(1)在记忆指导语条件下, 被试获得了语法规则; (2)直觉在记忆指导语条件下贡献突出, 表现出特异性。该结果表明记忆指导语引发了被试基于直觉区分人工语法规则的内隐学习优势效应。     

Non‐adjacent Dependencies Processing in Human and Non‐human Primates

Human and non‐human primates share the ability to extract adjacent dependencies and, under certain conditions, non‐adjacent dependencies (i.e., predictive relationships between elements that are separated by one or several intervening elements in a sequence). In this study, we explore the online extraction dynamics of non‐adjacent dependencies in humans and baboons using a serial reaction time task. Participants had to produce three‐target sequences containing deterministic relationships between the first and last target locations. In Experiment 1, participants from the two species could extract these non‐adjacent dependencies, but humans required less exposure than baboons. In Experiment 2, the data show for the first time in a non‐human primate species the successful generalization of sequential non‐adjacent dependencies over novel intervening items. These findings provide new evidence to further constrain current theories about the nature and the evolutionary origins of the learning mechanisms allowing the extraction of non‐adjacent dependencies.     

Contextual dependencies in motor skills

The development of contextual dependencies during motor skill acquisition was examined. Environmental context was varied along intentional and incidental dimensions. Intentional stimuli were defined as essential for achieving skilled performance, whereas incidental stimuli were defined as those that have the potential to become associated with specific tasks due to their selective presence in the learning environment. Experiment 1 demonstrated the occurrence of contextual dependencies for the learning of four-key typing sequences. Contextual dependencies were diminished in Experiment 2 when the number of keys used in the sequences was reduced. In Experiment 3, a retention condition was incorporated, in which both the intentional and the incidental stimuli were not available; this confirmed that task difficulty mediated the development of contextual dependencies. These findings are discussed with respect to the incorporation of environmental contextual stimuli with memorial representations of movement information.     

Two modes of transfer in artificial grammar learning

Participants can transfer grammatical knowledge acquired implicitly in 1 vocabulary to new sequences instantiated in both the same and a novel vocabulary. Two principal theories have been advanced to account for these effects. One suggests that sequential dependencies form the basis for cross-domain transfer (e.g., Z. Dienes, G. T. M. Altmann, & S. J. Gao, 1999). Another argues that a form of episodic memory known as abstract analogy is sufficient (e.g., L. R. Brooks & J. R. Vokey, 1991). Three experiments reveal the contributions of the 2. In Experiment 1 sequential dependencies form the only basis for transfer. Experiment 2 demonstrates that this process is impaired by a change in the distributional properties of the language. Experiment 3 demonstrates that abstract analogy of repetition structure is relatively immune to such a change. These findings inform theories of artificial grammar learning and the transfer of grammatical knowledge.     

Position-item associations play a role in the acquisition of order knowledge in an implicit serial reaction time task

Knowledge of sequential regularities plays a key role in forms of explicit and implicit memory, such as working memory and motor skills. Despite important advances in the study of sequence knowledge in the past century, the theoretical development of implicit and explicit memory has occurred separately. Unlike the literature on implicit sequence learning, the explicit learning literature differentiates between 2 forms of representation of serial structure, chaining (C is the item following B in the sequence A-B-C-D) and ordinal position knowledge (C is the 3rd item). In 3 experiments, we demonstrate that these 2 forms of sequence knowledge can be acquired in implicit sequence learning. In Experiment 1, 2 trained sequences were recombined at transfer such that the strength of (a) associations between serial positions and sequence elements as well as (b) associations between successive sequence elements could be estimated. In Experiment 2, we compared sequence elements placed at the trained versus untrained serial position. Experiment 3 reduced cues that can be used to determine the start of a sequence within the stream of trials. Our results suggest that the discussion held in explicit memory research about different forms of representation of sequences knowledge also is relevant for implicit sequence learning.     

Implicit chaining in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) with elements equated for probability of reinforcement

Three experiments examined the implicit learning of sequences under conditions in which the elements comprising a sequence were equated in terms of reinforcement probability. In Experiment 1 cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) experienced a five-element sequence displayed serially on a touch screen in which reinforcement probability was equated across elements at .16 per element. Tamarins demonstrated learning of this sequence with higher latencies during a random test as compared to baseline sequence training. In Experiments 2 and 3, manipulations of the procedure used in the first experiment were undertaken to rule out a confound owing to the fact that the elements in Experiment 1 bore different temporal relations to the intertrial interval (ITI), an inhibitory period. The results of Experiments 2 and 3 indicated that the implicit learning observed in Experiment 1 was not due to temporal proximity between some elements and the inhibitory ITI. The results taken together support two conclusion: First that tamarins engaged in sequence learning whether or not there was contingent reinforcement for learning the sequence, and second that this learning was not due to subtle differences in associative strength between the elements of the sequence.     

The basis of transfer in artificial grammar learning

In two experiments, we examined the extent to which knowledge of sequential dependencies and/or patterns of repeating elements is used during transfer in artificial grammar learning. According to one view of transfer, learners abstract the grammar's sequential dependencies and then learn a mapping to new vocabulary at test (Dienes, Altmann, & Gao, 1999). Elements that are repeated have no special status on this view, and so a logical prediction is that learners should transfer as well after exposure to a grammar without repetitions as after exposure to a grammar with them. On another view, repetition structure is the very basis of transfer (Brooks & Vokey, 1991; Mathews & Roussel, 1997). Learners were trained on grammars with or without repeating elements to test these competing views. Learners demonstrated considerable knowledge of sequential dependencies in their training vocabulary but did not use such knowledge to transfer to a new vocabulary. Transfer only occurred in the presence of repetition structure, demonstrating this to be the basis of transfer.     

Elemental and configural processing of novel cues in deterministic and probabilistic tasks

Three experiments examined whether transfer of past learning depends on how well the original discrimination is learned. To vary terminal learning levels, cues were either perfect (deterministic) or imperfect (probabilistic) predictors of a trial’s outcome. Participants in Experiment 1 acquired a configural, an elemental or a control discrimination. Tests for generalization showed that past learning influenced the processing of new compounds formed from elements of the original discrimination, especially so when the original discrimination was deterministic. Similar results were found in Experiment 2 when the test stimuli were elements derived from novel compounds presented after the original discrimination was acquired. Experiment 3 used filler trials to equate learning in the probabilistic and deterministic tasks, and demonstrated that final levels of learning, rather than task per se, was the critical variable mediating transfer. Implications for rule-based and associative theories are discussed.     

Is an attention-based associative account of adjacent and nonadjacent dependency learning valid?

Pacton and Perruchet (2008) reported that participants who were asked to process adjacent elements located within a sequence of digits learned adjacent dependencies but did not learn nonadjacent dependencies and conversely, participants who were asked to process nonadjacent digits learned nonadjacent dependencies but did not learn adjacent dependencies. In the present study, we showed that when participants were simply asked to read aloud the same sequences of digits, a task demand that did not require the intentional processing of specific elements as in standard statistical learning tasks, only adjacent dependencies were learned. The very same pattern was observed when digits were replaced by syllables. These results show that the perfect symmetry found in Pacton and Perruchet was not due to the fact that the processing of digits is less sensitive to their distance than the processing of syllables, tones, or visual shapes used in most statistical learning tasks. Moreover, the present results, completed with a reanalysis of the data collected in Pacton and Perruchet (2008), demonstrate that participants are highly sensitive to violations involving the spacing between paired elements. Overall, these results are consistent with the Pacton and Perruchet's single-process account of adjacent and nonadjacent dependencies, in which the joint attentional processing of the two events is a necessary and sufficient condition for learning the relation between them, irrespective of their distance. However, this account should be completed to encompass the notion that the presence or absence of an intermediate event is an intrinsic component of the representation of an association.     

TRANSFER OF AVERSIVE RESPONDENT ELICITATION IN ACCORDANCE WITH EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS

The present study investigates the transfer of aversively conditioned respondent elicitation through equivalence classes, using skin conductance as the measure of conditioning. The first experiment is an attempt to replicate Experiment 1 in Dougher, Augustson, Markham, Greenway, and Wulfert (1994), with different temporal parameters in the aversive conditioning procedure employed. Match‐to‐sample procedures were used to teach 17 participants two 4‐member equivalence classes. Then, one member of one class was paired with electric shock and one member of the other class was presented without shock. The remaining stimuli from each class were presented in transfer tests. Unlike the findings in the original study, transfer of conditioning was not achieved. In Experiment 2, similar procedures were used with 30 participants, although several modifications were introduced (formation of five‐member classes, direct conditioning with several elements of each class, random sequences of stimulus presentation in transfer tests, reversal in aversive conditioning contingencies). More than 80% of participants who had shown differential conditioning also showed the transfer of function effect. Moreover, this effect was replicated within subjects for 3 participants. This is the first demonstration of the transfer of aversive respondent elicitation through stimulus equivalence classes with the presentation of transfer test trials in random order. The latter prevents the possibility that transfer effects are an artefact of transfer test presentation order.     

Acquisition of Effector-Specific and Effector-Independent Components of Sequencing Skill

In a serial reaction time task, participants practiced a repeating sequence with 1 hand. In interleaved blocks, they responded to random sequences with the other hand. Experiment 1 was composed of 5 sessions, each consisting of 30 blocks. Intermanual transfer, reflecting a hand-independent component of sequence knowledge, increased across session. A smaller but significant, nontransferable, and hand-specific component was evident in each session and did not increase with practice. Experiment 2 comprised only 1 session. Uninterrupted practice (no interleaved random blocks) improved hand-independent sequence learning in comparison with interrupted practice (as implemented in Experiment 1), whereas hand-specific sequence learning was unaffected by this between-subjects manipulation. These findings suggest separate mechanisms for effector-independent sequence learning and effector-specific acquisition of optimized response coarticulation.