The what,why, and how of born-open data

Although many researchers agree that scientific data should be open to scrutiny to ferret out poor analyses and outright fraud, most raw data sets are not available on demand. There are many reasons researchers do not open their data, and one is technical. It is often time consuming to prepare and archive data. In response, my laboratory has automated the process such that our data are archived the night they are created without any human approval or action. All data are versioned, logged, time stamped, and uploaded including aborted runs and data from pilot subjects. The archive is GitHub, github.com, the world’s largest collection of open-source materials. Data archived in this manner are called born open. In this paper, I discuss the benefits of born-open data and provide a brief technical overview of the process. I also address some of the common concerns about opening data before publication.     

The motor system in simple reaction time experiments

In this paper evidence is presented that the variability of the motor system does not play an important role in the variability of simple reaction time. Many studies refer to this fact which, however, seems contradictory to electrophysiological data. A model is proposed for the operation of the motor system in simple reaction time experiments which consistently links single cell neuronal activity with electromyographic activity and with response time. It appears that the motor system subserving simple reactions consists of many elements which once triggered produce a mechanical response well defined in time despite the fact that the elements themselves show a rather large time jitter.     

E-Science and the data deluge

This paper attempts to show how the “big data” paradigm is changing science through offering access to millions of database elements in real time and the computational power to rapidly process those data in ways that are not initially obvious. In order to gain a proper understanding of these changes and their implications, we propose applying an extended cognition model to the novel scenario.     

A multivariate reduced-rank growth curve model with unbalanced data

A multivariate reduced-rank growth curve model is proposed that extends the univariate reducedrank growth curve model to the multivariate case, in which several response variables are measured over multiple time points. The proposed model allows us to investigate the relationships among a number of response variables in a more parsimonious way than the traditional growth curve model. In addition, the method is more flexible than the traditional growth curve model. For example, response variables do not have to be measured at the same time points, nor the same number of time points. It is also possible to apply various kinds of basis function matrices with different ranks across response variables. It is not necessary to specify an entire set of basis functions in advance. Examples are given for illustration.The work reported in this paper was supported by Grant A6394 from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada to the second author. We thank Jennifer Stephan for her helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper. We also thank Patrick Curran and Terry Duncan for kindly letting us use the NLSY and substance use data, respectively. The substance use data were provided by Grant DA09548 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse.     

Social Trust and Value Change: The Decline of Social Capital in American Youth, 1976–1995

Given the importance that generalized social trust plays in various theories of American society, recent evidence of its low levels among younger people portends ominous changes in American civic life. Using survey data collected from high school seniors over the last 20 years, this paper examines the origins of social trust among young people and the causes of change in beliefs about trust over time. Such changes could not be accounted for by the explanations for declining trust offered in other accounts of social capital. An alternative explanation, based on the theoretical accounts of Alexis de Tocqueville and Emile Durkheim, is that materialistic values may be undermining young people's views about the trustworthiness of others. Both aggregate time series correlations and an individual-level model show that the rapid rise of materialistic value orientations that occurred among American youth in the 1970s and 1980s severely eroded levels of social trust. The paper concludes with some observations about the likely trajectory of American democracy, given the kinds of trends observed in the youth data.     

Cyberbullying: An overrated phenomenon?

The paper argues that several claims about cyberbullying made in the media and elsewhere are greatly exaggerated and have little empirical scientific support. Contradicting these claims, it turns out that cyberbullying, when studied in proper context, is a low-prevalence phenomenon, which has not increased over time and has not created many “new” victims and bullies, that is, children and youth who are not also involved in some form of traditional bullying. These conclusions are based on two quite large samples of students, one from the USA and one from Norway, both of which have time series data for periods of four or five years. It is further argued that the issue of possible negative effects of cyberbullying has not received much serious research attention and a couple of strategies for such research are suggested together with some methodological recommendations. Finally, it is generally recommended that schools direct most of their anti-bullying efforts to counteracting traditional bullying, combined with an important system-level strategy that is likely to reduce the already low prevalence of cyberbullying.     

Multivariate repeated measures designs

In the social, behavioral, and health researches it is a common strategy to collect data along time on more than one group of participants on multiple dependent variables. To analyse this kind of data is very complicated due to the correlations between the measures taken in different points of the time, and between the answers. Usually to analyse these data the multivariate mixed model, or the doubly multivariate model, are the most frequent approaches. Both of them require combined multivariate normality, equal covariance matrices, independence between the observations of different participants, complete measurements on all subjects, and time-independent covariates. When one ore more of these assumptions are not accomplished these approaches do not control in the correct way the Type I error, and this affects the validity and the accuracy of the inferences. In this paper some solutions that solve the problems with the error Type I will be shown. Several programs for a correct realization of the analyses through the SAS Proc Mixed procedure are presented.     

Perceiving External Things and the Time‐Lag Argument

Abstract: We seem to directly perceive external things. But can we? According to the time‐lag argument, we cannot. What we directly perceive happens now. There is a time‐lag between our perceptions and the external things we seem to directly perceive; these external things happen in the past; thus, what we directly perceive must be something else, for example, sense‐data, and we can only at best indirectly perceive other things. This paper examines the time‐lag argument given contemporary metaphysics. I argue that this argument is not as compelling as it may initially seem. First, it denies that what we directly perceive can ever be what it seems to be; second, it conflicts with the current physical conception of time, relativity theory. This latter point leads to a more general one: the argument's force depends on a particular metaphysical conception on time, presentism, which is controversial in contemporary metaphysics of time. Given the alternative conception, eternalism, the argument is much less compelling. The overall argument of this paper, then, is that, if one wishes to hold that we directly perceive external things, we should subscribe to the latter view of time, i.e., eternalism.     

Time Delay Embedding Increases Estimation Precision of Models of Intraindividual Variability

This paper investigates the precision of parameters estimated from local samples of time dependent functions. We find that time delay embedding, i.e., structuring data prior to analysis by constructing a data matrix of overlapping samples, increases the precision of parameter estimates and in turn statistical power compared to standard independent rows of panel data. We show that the reason for this effect is that the sign of estimation bias depends on the position of a misplaced data point if there is no a priori knowledge about initial conditions of the time dependent function. Hence, we reason that the advantage of time delayed embedding is likely to hold true for a wide variety of functions. We support these conclusions both by mathematical analysis and two simulations.     

The metric‐frequency measure of similarity for ill‐structured data sets,with an application to family therapy

Similarity measures have been studied extensively in many domains, but usually with well‐structured data sets. In many psychological applications, however, such data sets are not available. It often cannot even be predicted how many items will be observed, or what exactly they will entail. This paper introduces a similarity measure, called the metric‐frequency (MF) measure, that can be applied to such data sets. If it is not known beforehand how many items will be observed, then the number of items actually observed in itself carries information. A typical feature of the MF is that it incorporates such information. The primary purpose of our measure is that it should be pragmatic, widely applicable, and tractable, even if data are complex. The MF generalizes Tversky's set‐theoretic measure of similarity to cases where items may be present or absent and at the same time can be numerical as with Shepard's metric measure, but need not be so. As an illustration, we apply the MF to family therapy where it cannot be predicted what issues the clients will raise in therapy sessions. The MF is flexible enough to be applicable to idiographic data.     

Timing at the Start of Associative Learning

Some theories of associative learning imply that time plays a fundamental role in the acquisition process. Consistent with these theories, this paper presents evidence that the time from the onset of a conditioned stimulus (CS) until presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (US) is learned very rapidly at the start of training. We report two autoshaping studies and a study on aversive conditioning in goldfish in which we examine timing at the start of conditioning. We also review data from a number of other conditioning preparations, including fear-potentiated startle, appetitive conditioning in rats, and eyeblink conditioning in rabbits, that report conditioned response (CR) timing early in training. Acquisition speed and the very first expressions of conditioned responding often show sensitivity to the time of US presentation. In instances where temporal control is slowly expressed, it is likely due to performance factors, not to slow learning about time. In fact, the learning about time may be a necessary condition for associative learning.     

Behavioral contrast in short term memory: Serial binary memory models or parallel continuous memory models?

This paper develops a model wherein STM primacy as well as recency effects can occur. The STM primacy effects can be used to generate correct immediate recall of short lists that have not been coded in LTM. The properties of the model are interpreted in terms of explicit neural mechanisms. The STM primacy effect is a behavioral contrast effect that is analogous to the behavioral contrast that can occur during discrimination learning. The adaptational mechanism that accounts for these effects is also implicated in data on reaction time, retinal adaptation, ratio scales in choice behavior, and von Restorff-type effects. Its ubiquitous appearance is due to the fact that it solves a universal problem concerning the parallel processing of patterned data by noisy cells with finitely many excitable sites. It is argued that the STM primacy effect is not measured in interference experiments because it is masked by competitive STM interactions. These competitive interactions do not prevent the LTM primacy effect from influencing performance. The paper criticizes recent models of STM that use computer analogies to justify binary codes, serial STM buffers, and serial scanning procedures. Several deficiencies of serial models in dealing with psychological and neural processing are overcome by a model in which continuous STM activities and parallel real-time operations play an important role.     

Maximizing,choice freedom,and duration judgments in choice making

This paper examines (a) whether people are less accurate in judging choice time as choice tasks involve more choice options, more choice information, or a combination of both and (b) whether people with a higher tendency to look for the best option in choice making (maximizers) have less accurate duration judgments of choice time as compared to people who are more easily settling for a choice outcome that is satisfactory (satisficers). A multilevel analysis is used to explore the relationships of interest using data collected through a series of choice tasks. In general, the results suggest that people seem to misjudge time durations when making choices. Moreover, empirical evidence demonstrates that people with an outspoken tendency to maximize in choice making do not differ significantly in estimating choice time accurately as compared to people who experience almost no need to maximize.     

Authority,Autonomy and Automation: The Irreducibility of Pedagogy to Information Transactions

This paper draws attention to the tendency of a range of technologies to reduce pedagogical interactions to a series of datafied transactions of information. This is problematic because such transactions are always by definition reducible to finite possibilities. As the ability to gather and analyse data becomes increasingly fine-grained, the threat that these datafied approaches over-determine the pedagogical space increases. Drawing on the work of Hegel, as interpreted by twentieth century French radical philosopher Alexandre Kojève, this paper develops a model of relational pedagogy which highlights three points of incompatibility with a datafied learning environment reduced to finite measures. Firstly: Kojève’s accont of authority in Hegel posits two aspects to the mimetic relation between teacher and student: recognition and realisation, which belong to the ipseity or about-self-ness of the subject, and are incompatible with a general definition of data. Secondly, the Hegelian approach to human historical time, in particular the assertion that time and desire are begun in the future, not the past, renders it incompatible with mathematical time as used in data processing. Finally, from these it is possible to derive a distinctive notion of the work of pedagogy, grounded in Kojève’s realist reading of Hegel, irreducible to information processing. In consequence of this threefold irreducibility, the paper draws attention to a need for relations of human pedagogical work to be inherent in the design of educational technologies and highlights the dangers of presuming a machine intelligence model in the design of learning environments.     

The indispensability of precollision kinematics in the visual perception of relative mass

The visible kinematic pattern that occurs when objects collide contains information about the relative mass of the objects. Recently, Gilden and Proffitt (1989) have claimed that perceivers are limited to the use of simultaneous elemental cues and that therefore mass discrimination judgments are independent of whether the precollision epoch is visible or not. The present paper argues that their experimental results are irrelevant because crucial parameters were held constant, and that false conclusions were drawn because their data were not treated for what they are: threshold measurements obtained with the method of constant stimuli. Three experiments are reported, showingthat a high level of performance is attainable only when the whole event is visible, and thus that the effective information is extended over time. In addition, modified PROBIT analysis was used to determine what information observers use when the precollision epoch is occluded. Analytically complex invariants, based on vector components in the abstract collision-axis system, proved to have the best fit to the data. Thus the elementaristic premises in Gilden and Proffitt’s cue-heuristic model for relative mass perception are defeated.     

The matching law applies to wagtails' foraging in the wild

Field data concerning the time budgets and foraging success of pied wagtails (Motacilla alba yarrelli, Gould) are reanalyzed. It is found that the data are well described by the generalized matching law, with a marked bias towards spending time on the territory. In this case matching is not the result of maximizing reward rate, but it remains possible that it results from an allocation of time that maximizes survival.     

Switching between memory and perception: Moving attention or memory retrieval?

Weber, Burt, and Noll (1986) estimated that the time needed to switch attention between memory and perception was around 300 msec. The first two experiments in the present paper estimated switching time using a variation of their task. Subjects reported aloud lists of six items. The items were read off a computer screen (perception), recited from memory, or reported alternately from the two sources. The data show that the switching-time estimate is influenced by input/output compatibility, response-initiation times, and memory load. When these factors were controlled, estimated switching time dropped to around 100-150 msec. The data suggest, however, that the switch from perception to memory might be slower than the switch from memory to perception, which would invalidate the formula used to compute switching time. Experiment 3 tested the time for a single switch from perception to memory and a single switch from memory to perception by restricting report to one pair of items in the list. When the to-be-reported pair was precued, estimated switching time dropped to zero. When the pair was not precued, the memory-to-perception switching time remained at zero, but the perception-to-memory time was more than 400 msec. The pattern of results forced a reconceptualization of the task in terms of memory retrieval rather than attention switching. The attention-switching times appear to reflect processes required to select items from memory.     

Detection of auditory signals presented at random times,II

The paper includes experimental results obtained using two procedures in which signals are presented at random times. A simple three-stage theory consisting of a sensory process, followed by a response bias, and ending in a response process, involving a random delay, and that mayor may not have a memory, is compared with the data. The free-response procedure yielded data that could not be accounted for by a first version of the theory in which the crucial assumption about the response process was that once a response process is under way it locks out all further inputs until the response is made. Alternative models, including a race between response processes with the first response suppressing all others and a simple first-in first-out queue, were equally inadequate. On the assumption that the difficulties lie in the complexities of the response process when there are two or more inputs close in time, we decided to avoid these theoretical difficulties by using a modified reaction-time procedure. The initial results are encouraging. The tails of the latency distributions appear to be exponentially distributed and a theoretical prediction that two of the time constants should be the same appears to be supported. The major indications of difficulties are inconclusive evidence that the response bias parameter may not be constant and, possibly related, that the initial portion of the tails may overshoot the predicted value. In spite of the possible variation in the bias parameter, estimates of the signal-plus-noise to noise-alone parameters increase in a systematic manner with signal strength     

Still Catching up: Schools, Sexual Orientation and Homophobia in Ireland

This paper outlines research that was conducted among students, parents, teachers and senior management teams in five high schools in the Greater Dublin area of Ireland. The research involved semi-structured interviews and observations. The findings of this research are significant in that it was the first time any data was gathered on this topic directly from those within the school system. Overall, the qualitative nature of the data allowed us to obtain an insight into how students, parents, teachers and senior management teams understand and experience homophobic bullying in their schools. The data from this study shows that the impact of not having a mainstream approach to sexual orientation within schools results in fear, negative stereotypes, and worse still discriminatory and bullying behaviour.     

Monitoring Scale Scores over Time via Quality Control Charts, Model-Based Approaches, and Time Series Techniques

Maintaining a stable score scale over time is critical for all standardized educational assessments. Traditional quality control tools and approaches for assessing scale drift either require special equating designs, or may be too time-consuming to be considered on a regular basis with an operational test that has a short time window between an administration and its score reporting. Thus, the traditional methods are not sufficient to catch unusual testing outcomes in a timely manner. This paper presents a new approach for score monitoring and assessment of scale drift. It involves quality control charts, model-based approaches, and time series techniques to accommodate the following needs of monitoring scale scores: continuous monitoring, adjustment of customary variations, identification of abrupt shifts, and assessment of autocorrelation. Performance of the methodologies is evaluated using manipulated data based on real responses from 71 administrations of a large-scale high-stakes language assessment.