Learning strategy selection in the water maze and hippocampal CREB phosphorylation differ in two inbred strains of mice

Learning strategy selection was assessed in two different inbred strains of mice, C57BL/6 and DBA/2, which are used for developing genetically modified mouse models. Male mice received a training protocol in a water maze using alternating blocks of visible and hidden platform trials, during which mice escaped to a single location. After training, mice were required to choose between the spatial location where the platform had been during training (a place strategy) and a visible platform presented in a new location (a cued/response strategy). Both strains of mice had similar escape performance on the visible and hidden platform trials during training. However, in the strategy preference test, C57BL/6 mice selected a place strategy significantly more often than DBA/2 mice. Because much evidence implicates the hippocampus and striatum as important neural substrates for spatial/place and cued/response learning, respectively, the engagement of the hippocampus was then assessed after either place or cue training by determining levels of cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and phosphorylated CREB (pCREB) in these two mouse strains. Results revealed that hippocampal CREB levels in both strains of mice were significantly increased after place in comparison to cued training. However, the relation of hippocampal pCREB levels to training was strain dependent; pCREB was significantly higher in C57BL/6 mice than in DBA/2 mice after place training, while hippocampal pCREB levels did not differ between strains after cued training. These findings indicate that pCREB, specifically associated with place/spatial training, is closely tied to differences in spatial/place strategy preference between C57BL/6 and DBA/2 mice.     

汉语母语儿童和成人视听双通道英语语音知觉的训练研究

本研究通过前测-训练-后测的实验程序,对22名五年级小学生和29名大学一年级学生在不同测查条件下知觉英语辅音/s/和/θ/的可塑性情况进行了考察和比较。两个年龄阶段被试在前后测中均接受纯听、视听一致、视听不一致和纯视条件下的测查,训练时两个年龄阶段被试中分别有一半接受纯听训练,另一半接受视听训练,训练时间历时10天,每天30分钟左右。对训练效果的分析发现:(1)接受纯听和视听训练的五年级学生在纯视测查条件下知觉英语辅音/s/和/θ/的提高率有显著差异,视听训练被试显著高于纯听训练被试,在其他条件下没有显著差异;(2)接受两种训练的大学生在所有条件下知觉英语辅音/s/和/θ/的提高率都没有显著差异。说明儿童表现出了更强的视听双通道语音知觉的可塑性。     

Using Situational Judgment Tests to Assess Training Effectiveness: Lessons Learned Evaluating Military Equal Opportunity Advisor Trainees

Situational judgment tests (SJTs) are well suited for training evaluation, especially when measures of on-the-job behaviors/performances are unavailable. Yet, SJTs are underutilized in the training evaluation context. This research details the development and use of an SJT to evaluate equal opportunity/diversity training in the military. We focus on issues that differentiate the development of SJTs for training evaluation from the development of SJTs for selection. Finally, results are presented for two cycles of training evaluation using an SJT, and the strengths and limitations of using SJTs in the training context are discussed.     

基于即时反馈的反应抑制训练对青少年和成人执行功能的训练效应和迁移效应

本研究以基于即时反馈的Stop Signal范式为训练任务, 考察3周训练是否对青少年和成人的执行功能产生训练效应和迁移效应。发现青少年、成人实验组和积极控制组都出现了训练效应。两个实验组均产生了对反应抑制Go/No-go任务的迁移效应; 但只有青少年实验组出现了对干扰抑制Stroop任务的迁移效应。成人实验组和积极控制组都出现了对2-back任务的迁移效应; 但只有青少年实验组出现了在2-和3-back任务上的迁移效应。所有组别都未能出现对推理能力的迁移。研究证明从青春期到成年期, 基于即时反馈的反应抑制训练能够对执行功能产生训练和迁移效应, 但迁移仅限于抑制和工作记忆等基础成分, 无法改善推理能力。     

Race/ethnicity, color-blind racial attitudes, and multicultural counseling competence: the moderating effects of multicultural counseling training

Increasing trainees' multicultural counseling competence (MCC) has been a hot topic in counseling. Scholars have identified predictors (e.g., race/ethnicity, color-blindness) of MCC, and educators provide multicultural training for trainees. Using a sample of 370 psychology trainees, this study examined whether multicultural training (a) moderated racial/ethnic differences on MCC and (b) changed the relationship between color-blindness and MCC. Results indicated a significant interaction effect of race/ethnicity (i.e., White vs. ethnic minority) and multicultural training on multicultural awareness, but not on multicultural knowledge. Specifically, at lower levels of training, racial/ethnic minority trainees had significantly higher multicultural awareness than their White counterparts; at higher levels of training, no significant difference was found. Described differently, more training significantly enhanced Whites' multicultural awareness, but did not enhance racial/ethnic minority trainees' awareness. Additionally, there was a significant interaction effect of color-blindness and multicultural training on multicultural knowledge, but not on multicultural awareness. The association between color-blindness and multicultural knowledge was stronger at higher levels of multicultural training than at lower levels of training. Alternatively, the effect of training on enhancing knowledge was stronger for those with lower color-blindness than for those with higher color-blindness.     

The effects of training and transfer on global/local processing

We investigated interference, inhibition and transfer effects associated with training on a global-local task. Participants received 10,080 training trials on identifying local features of global/local stimuli. Global processing advantage was eliminated with practice. Global interference decreased with training whereas local interference developed with training. Transfer analyses indicated that training produced stimulus-specific effects in local processing and task-specific effects in global processing. Our findings are discussed in regards to models of global/local processing.     

Receptive training of adjectival inflections in mental retardates

A generalized discrimination of /er/ and /est/ suffixes as labels for stimuli exemplifying comparative or superlative relationships was established in three institutionalized retardates through differential reinforcement. The subjects were first taught correct pointing in response to opposite adjectives (e.g., "big-small") presented as labels for simple visual stimuli, and then taught each of the comparatives, or each of the superlatives possible for those opposites (e.g., "big-bigger" and "small-smaller", or "big-biggest" and "small-smallest"). As training proceeded, novel combinations of the training stimuli were presented as unreinforced probes to display any developing generalization of the training. As training of comparative discrimination proceeded, correct pointing response to comparative probes was high, but correct response to superlative probes was low. When training of superlative discriminations replaced training of comparatives, correct response to superlative probes increased, and correct response to comparative probes remained high.     

Mitigating aggression and promoting prosocial behavior in aggressive elementary schoolboys

The effects of four school-based interventions designed to decrease children's aggression and promote prosocial behavior were assessed. One hundred and four aggressive boys, ages 8–13, from ‘Behavior Disorder’ classrooms, were assigned to one of four training conditions: cognitive (self-control) training, behavioral (prosocial skills) training, combined cognitive-behavioral training, or attention/play training. School psychologists trained the boys in small groups for 10 1-h sessions. It was hypothesized that training in both cognitive and behavioral competencies would lead to the most behavioral improvement. Results indicated that, according to teacher report, those children receiving the cognitive-behavioral and attention/play interventions improved significantly more than those exposed to cognitive and behavioral training by decreasing their aggression and increasing their prosocial behavior immediately following the intervention. At 6-month follow-up, only those children exposed to the attention/play intervention remained significantly improved.     

Discrimination of methadone and cocaine by pigeons without explicit discrimination training.

Pigeons were trained to peck a key on a variable-interval 2-min schedule of food reinforcement. Prior to each session, either 2.0 mg/kg methadone (n = 3), 3.0 mg/kg cocaine (n = 4), or 5.6 mg/kg cocaine (n = 2) was administered. When each pigeon's rate of pecking was stable, a range of doses of the training drug and saline were administered prior to 20-min extinction sessions separated by at least four training sessions. Rate of pecking during these extinction tests was generally an increasing function of dose, with the lowest rates obtained following saline and low doses and the highest rates obtained following doses near the training doses. Dose functions from pigeons trained with 5.6 mg/kg cocaine were steeper than those from pigeons trained with 3.0 mg/kg cocaine. Pigeons trained with methadone or 3.0 mg/kg cocaine were then given discrimination training, in which food reinforcement followed drug administration and 20-min extinction sessions followed saline administration. Rates of pecking under these conditions quickly diverged until near-zero rates were obtained following saline and high rates were obtained following drug. Discrimination training steepened dose functions for the training drugs, and the effects of several other substituted drugs depended on the pharmacology of the training drug. The pigeons trained with 5.6 mg/kg cocaine were tested with d-amphetamine, methadone, and morphine prior to discrimination training. d-Amphetamine increased rates dose dependently, and methadone and morphine did not. The results suggest that discriminative control by methadone and cocaine was established without explicit discrimination training.     

Training of interns and practicum students at community mental health centers

The training of interns and practicum students has become a significant part of the overall program of CMHCs over the last decade. Although many centers provide innovative training in areas consistent with the philosophies of community mental health/community psychology, CMHCs consider the outstanding training which they provide to be in the traditional clinical areas. The fact that the revolution envisaged by the early proponents of the CMH/CP ideology has become transformed into an evolution is not cause for dismay but rather constitutes a study in social change. The planned incorporation of additional CMH/CP components into training programs augurs well for the future. However, the future of training programs is dependent on the extent to which the profession as a whole marshals its resources to not only maintain but increase the financial resources required for maintaining our network of training facilities—CMHCs along with other facilities.     

The dread factor: how hazards and safety training influence learning and performance

On the basis of hypotheses derived from social and experiential learning theories, we meta-analytically investigated how safety training and workplace hazards impact the development of safety knowledge and safety performance. The results were consistent with an expected interaction between the level of engagement of safety training and hazardous event/exposure severity in the promotion of safety knowledge and performance. For safety knowledge and safety performance, highly engaging training was considerably more effective than less engaging training when hazardous event/exposure severity was high, whereas highly and less engaging training had comparable levels of effectiveness when hazardous event/exposure severity was low. Implications of these findings for theory testing and incorporating information on objective risk into workplace safety research and practice are discussed.     

Relations among heavy training stress,mood state,and performance for male junior rowers

This study investigated the influence of rapidly increased training volume on performance and recovery-stress state perceived by 10 male junior rowers. The training during the 6-day period amounted to 21.5 +/- 2.2 hr., which was equivalent to an average increase in training load by approximately 100% compared to their average training volume during the previous 4 wk. The time to row 2,000 m on a rowing ergometer and resting cortisol level were significantly increased after the 6-day training period. Scores on subscales of the Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes significantly increased for somatic component of stress (Fatigue) and decreased factor indicating recovery (Social Relaxation) after the heavy training period. A correlation of .63 was found between increased training volume and scores on the Conflicts/Pressure subscale at the end of the heavy training period. Correlations were also found between changes in training volume with changes on subscales of Sleep Quality (r=-.64) and Burnout/Personal Accomplishment (r=-.66). Changes in resting cortisol levels as a result of heavy training stress were related to the changes in the following stress subscales: Social Stress (r=.76), Fatigue (r=.64), Disturbed Breaks (r=.65), and Fitness/Injury (r=.67). Changes in performance, perceived recovery-stress state and resting plasma cortisol level reflect increased stress due to high training. These results suggest that the Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes could be used to evaluate the effects of rapidly increased training volume for male junior rowers.     

Correlates of Postassault Self-Defense/Assertiveness Training Participation for Sexual Assault Survivors

Past research has shown that self-defense/assertiveness training may have positive implications for sexual assault survivors. However, little is known about the correlates of self-defense/assertiveness training participation for sexually victimized women. In this study we examined the assault characteristics and experiences that relate to women's enrollment in postassault training using data from 1,623 female college sexual assault survivors. It appears that more violent attacks may lead survivors to enroll in postassault training, especially when their resistance was less effective. Postassault training participants were marginally more likely to have told someone about their assault, experienced less supportive reactions from others, exhibited marginally less current anxiety, and reported more postassault suicidal ideation than nonparticipants. These survivors may enroll in training to exercise control over future assaults occurring and as a way of healing from sexual assault. Suggestions for future research and the development of self-defense training programs for sexual assault survivors are presented.     

Race/Ethnicity and Multicultural Competence Among School Counselors: Multicultural Training,Racial/Ethnic Identity,and Color‐Blind Racial Attitudes

This study tested a model that links race/ethnicity, multicultural training, racial/ethnic identity (REI), color‐blind racial attitudes (CoBRA), and multicultural counseling competence (MCC) among school counselors. The author examined whether multicultural training significantly moderated the association between race/ethnicity and MCC. School counselors’ REI was found to mediate this moderated association. A 3‐way interaction among race/ethnicity, training, and CoBRA revealed that White and racial/ethnic minority school counselors had the lowest MCC scores when they had limited training and higher CoBRA.     

Redistributing control between the elements of a compound stimulus

Twenty-eight pigeons were given discrimination training. Four groups were run in which for 0, 2, 4 and 9 sessions of training colour was an irrelevant cue and tone was relevant. Generalization tests were given in extinction; the training colour (C₁) and another colour (C₂) were presented with tone (T) and noise (N). Responding to these four stimulus combinations, TC₁, TC₂, NC₁ and NC₂, allowed the assessment of control by colour and tone. A reduction of control by colour and an increase in control by tone were found to be positively related to the amount of training with colour irrelevant. Tests showed a strong inverse relationship between control by colour and tone.     

Muscle Strength Training Alters Muscle Activation of the Lower Extremity during Side-Step Cutting in Females

Abstract

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of muscle strength training on knee kinematics/kinetics and muscle activation patterns during anticipated side-step cutting. Three-dimensional knee kinematics/kinetics data and muscle activation of selected lower extremity muscles were measured while performing cutting before and after completing 10-week circuit strength training mixed typical resistance training and power training (intervention) or no training (control) from 25 female subjects. The muscle strength of quadriceps and hamstrings were measured before and after training using isokinetic dynamometer. No statistically significant differences were observed in quadriceps and hamstrings muscle strength, all kinematic/kinetic variables, and muscle activation for the control group. Both quadriceps (p?=?0.005) and hamstrings (p?=?0.030) muscle strength were increased after training. An increased biceps femoris (p?=?0.003) and H:Q ratio of activation (p?=?0.016), as well as decreased gastrocnemius muscle activation (p?=?0.012) during pre-activation phase in intervention group were found. No significant differences were found in knee kinematics and kinetics both at the time frame of the initial contact and the peak tibial anterior shear force after training. In conclusion, muscle strength training altered some muscle activations of lower extremity muscles, which might affect the risk of ACL injury, but it did not change the kinematic/kinetic parameters.     

Perceived Marital Changes Following Marriage Guidance Training

Training to become a marriage guidance counsellor in Scotland involves a relatively demanding 18 months' programme of both didactic and experiential learning. Changes in the counsellors' marital relationships following training were evaluated using the Marital Adjustment Test and two ad hoc questionnaires. Of the 49 counsellors who (a) began training between 1976 and 1980, (b) completed the training and (c) were still counselling in February 1983, 33 participated, as did 30 of their partners. In general, the counsellors and their partners reported increased marital satisfaction following the training period, though five counsellors and two partners reported a decrease. The findings from the ad hoc questionnaires were also encouraging.     

Postural Balance Following Aerobic Fatigue Tests: A Longitudinal Study Among Young Athletes

General fatigue can cause aggravation of postural balance, with increased risk for injuries. The present longitudinal study aimed to evaluate the postural balance of young athletes following field aerobic tests throughout 1 year of training. Thirty children from a sports center in Nazareth, participating in a 3 times/week training program (specific to basketball, soccer, or athletic training), were assessed. Postural balance parameters were taken before, immediately after, and 10 min after a 20 m shuttle-run aerobic test, at 3 time points during 1 training year (Start/Y, Mid/Y, and End/Y). Fitness improved at the Mid/Y and End/Y compared to Start/Y. Postural balance significantly deteriorated immediately after the aerobic test and improved significantly in the 10-min testing in all 3 time points, with significant deterioration in the End/Y compared with the Start/Y. In conclusions, postural balance deteriorates immediately after aerobic exercises, and at the end of the year. To better practice drills related to postural balance and possibly to prevent injuries, it is best for young athletes to properly rest immediately following aerobic exercises and to practice postural balance mainly at the beginning and at the middle of the training year.     

Teaching Behaviour Modification Procedures to Parents of Retarded and Psychotic Children: Practical Problems and Issues

Abstract

Practical problems and issues which arise in training parents of retarded and psychotic children in the use of behaviour modification techniques are discussed. The discussion is based on both individual and group attempts at training parents over a two year period. It is concluded that much empirical research is needed to determine the conditions which must be present for 1/ maximally training parents on behaviour modification procedures, and 2/ generalizing their training to the treatment of new behaviour problems.     

Differential effects of reasoning and speed training in children

The goal of this study was to determine whether intensive training can ameliorate cognitive skills in children. Children aged 7 to 9 from low socioeconomic backgrounds participated in one of two cognitive training programs for 60 minutes/day and 2 days/week, for a total of 8 weeks. Both training programs consisted of commercially available computerized and non-computerized games. Reasoning training emphasized planning and relational integration; speed training emphasized rapid visual detection and rapid motor responses. Standard assessments of reasoning ability - the Test of Non-Verbal Intelligence (TONI-3) and cognitive speed (Coding B from WISC IV) - were administered to all children before and after training. Neither group was exposed to these standardized tests during training. Children in the reasoning group improved substantially on TONI (Cohen's d = 1.51), exhibiting an average increase of 10 points in Performance IQ, but did not improve on Coding. By contrast, children in the speed group improved substantially on Coding (d = 1.15), but did not improve on TONI. Counter to widespread belief, these results indicate that both fluid reasoning and processing speed are modifiable by training.