The Nature and Significance of Behavioural Genetic Information

In light of the human genome project, establishing the genetic aetiology of complex human diseases has become a research priority within Western medicine. However, in addition to the identification of disease genes, numerous research projects are also being undertaken to identify genes contributing to the development of human behavioural characteristics, such as cognitive ability and criminal tendency. The permissibility of this research is obviously controversial: will society benefit from this research, or will it adversely affect our conceptions of ourselves and each other? When assessing the permissibility of this research, it is important to consider the nature and deterministic significance of behavioural genetic information. Whilst todate there has been much discussion and debate about the properties of genetic information per se and genetic determinism, this has not been applied to behavioural genetic research and its ethical implications. Therefore, this paper elucidates how behavioural genetic information can be distinguished from other types of genetic and non-genetic information and also synthesises the determinative significance of genetic factors for the development of human behavioural traits. Undertaking this analysis enables the ethical issues raised by this research to be debated in an appropriate context and indicates that separate policy considerations are warranted.

     

Physical punishment and childhood aggression: the role of gender and gene-environment interplay

A large body of research has linked spanking with a range of adverse outcomes in children, including aggression, psychopathology, and criminal involvement. Despite evidence concerning the association of spanking with antisocial behavior, not all children who are spanked develop antisocial traits. Given the heterogeneous effects of spanking on behavior, it is possible that a third variable may condition the influence of corporal punishment on child development. We test this possibility using data drawn from a nationally representative dataset of twin siblings. Our findings suggest that genetic risk factors condition the effects of spanking on antisocial behavior. Moreover, our results provide evidence that the interaction between genetic risk factors and corporal punishment may be particularly salient for males.     

Cognition to genes via the brain in the study of conduct disorder

Although a single diagnostic label, conduct disorder, is currently applied to children exhibiting antisocial behaviour, multiple routes to the same behavioural phenomena exist. Morton and Frith's (1995) causal modelling has been fundamentally important in influencing models of cognitive/affective and associated neural differences between callous-unemotional (CU) and reactive/threat-based antisocial behaviour. Current behavioural genetic research is still catching up with the developmental cognitive neuroscience, and very few genetically informative studies differentiate between these two subtypes of antisocial behaviour. Our own work with preadolescent twins suggests that while the CU subtype is genetically vulnerable to antisocial behaviour, the non-CU subtype manifests a primarily environmental aetiology to their antisocial behaviour. Molecular genetic work to date has not differentiated between these two subtypes, and we highlight why it might be of interest to do so. Finally, we discuss how the novel approach of imaging genetics could be harnessed to study genes to cognition pathways for different subtypes of conduct disorder. Uta Frith's contributions to articulating research strategies for developmental disorders are important in conducting and interpreting this work.     

‘Biologizing’ Psychopathy: Ethical,Legal, and Research Implications at the Interface of Epigenetics and Chronic Antisocial Conduct

Epigenetics, a field that links genetics and environmental influences on the expression of phenotypic traits, offers to increase our understanding of the development and trajectory of disease and psychological disorders beyond that thought of traditional genetic research and behavioural measures. By extension, this new perspective has implications for risk and risk management of antisocial behaviour where there is a biological component, such as psychopathy. Psychopathy is a personality disorder associated with repeat displays of antisocial behaviour, and is associated with the disproportionate imposition of harm on communities. Despite advances in our knowledge of psychopathic individuals, the construct remains complex and is hampered by a lack of integration across a range of fundamental domains. The clinical and forensic research on psychopathy is brought into conversation with the emerging field of epigenetics to highlight critical issues of (1) clinical definition and diagnosis, (2) assessment, (3) aetiology of psychopathic phenotypes, and (4) treatment and rehabilitation approaches. Broader ethical and legal questions of the role of epigenetic mechanisms in the management of psychopathy beyond the criminal justice arena are also outlined. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hypothesis testing as risk behaviour with regard to beliefs

In this paper hypothesis‐testing behaviour is compared to risk‐taking behaviour. It is proposed that choosing a suitable test for a given hypothesis requires making a preposterior analysis of two aspects of such a test: the probability of obtaining supporting evidence and the evidential value of this evidence. This consideration resembles the one a gambler makes when choosing among bets, each having a probability of winning and an amount to be won. A confirmatory testing strategy can be defined within this framework as a strategy directed at maximizing either the probability or the value of a confirming outcome. Previous theories on testing behaviour have focused on the human tendency to maximize the probability of a confirming outcome. In this paper, two experiments are presented in which participants tend to maximize the confirming value of the test outcome. Motivational factors enhance this tendency dependent on the context of the testing situation. Both this result and the framework are discussed in relation to other studies in the field of testing behaviour. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Der § 105 JGG: Entwicklungspsychologische Erkenntnisse und gutachterliche Praxis1

The paper describes the foundations drawn from developmental psychology for judging the maturity of young offenders and how expert assessment is carried out in practice according to § 105 in German Juvenile Law. This paragraph has repeatedly been the subject of public controversy. The findings of developmental psychology show clearly that young persons (18-21-year-olds) are still “structured” like adolescents in many psychical function areas. This is especially true for personality traits such as risk-taking behaviour, perception of risk, impulse control, planning horizon, self-control, peer-group influence, stimulation and similar - all relevant in criminal offences. A developmental retardation of this kind is particularly and greatly reinforced by the psycho-social strains typically affecting delinquent youths. An additional factor is a society-wide tendency for the young to retain youth-typical behaviour well into their thirties. The paper presents dimensions of maturity evaluation according to § 105 as also problematic areas in assessment by experts. In terms of constitutional law the considerable discrepancies in practice between the various states in the Federal Republic represent a serious infringement of the principle of equality before the law. Therefore both in terms of developmental psychology as also for reasons of equality before the law a ruling to place the 18-to-21-year-olds under the Jugendstrafrecht - German criminal law relating to offenders under 18 - is recommended.     

He's gotta have it: shopping dependence and the homosexual male clothing consumer

Shopping is not always ‘fun’ and is not always ‘therapeutic’, yet, the negative aspects and motivations for this behaviour have received little attention. Consumers often may be dependent upon shopping activity to satisfy personal needs, such as emotional repair and self‐image, which are far removed from the acquisition and use of products. Not only may this dependence be dysfunctional in that it signals an individual's inability to control their shopping behaviour but also it may be symptomatic of more serious problems, such as compulsive and even addictive shopping. This paper explores this shopping dependence in the context of fashion clothing consumption. Male consumers are considered, with sexual orientation employed as an indicator of behaviour. Data from a survey of 225 homosexual and 225 heterosexual UK males suggest that homosexual males display clothes shopping dependence, and at a level that is significantly stronger than for heterosexuals. Younger males show a greater tendency to display such behaviour, with dependence declining with age for both groups. Managerial and research implications are considered. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dissecting People and Ignoring Social Structure: An Analysis of Individualism,Public Policy,and Genetic Labeling

Genetic developments are examined from the vantage point of a social problems perspective, focusing on their tendency toward reinforcing individualism and undermining social structural analyses. The special situation of children is considered, with reference to the impact of genetic assessments of anti-social behavior, illegitimacy, intelligence, and the problem of genetic labeling. A research agenda for the future is suggested which recommends a realignment of priorities between genetic and social research.     

Measuring Parenting in Community and Public Health Research Using Brief Child and Parent Reports

The use of multi-method, multi-informant assessment is a hallmark of research in child development and mental health; however, many research strategies such as population surveys require brief assessment tools. The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ) is a popular measure of empirically identified aspects of positive and negative parenting styles important to conduct problems in children. A brief version exists, however it does not measure all relevant parenting domains, and it has not been validated for child reports. We evaluated validity of the brief parent and child report version of the complete five subscale version of the APQ in a sample of 208 children aged between 9 and 17, at risk for conduct problems and antisocial behaviour. The results showed that all five dimensions of parenting can be measured using a brief 15 item version; specifically child and parent reports converged as expected and discriminated high from low conduct problem children using parent and teacher reports. Only child reports converged with independent observations of parenting behaviour, supporting previous research showing that child reports of parenting are particularly important. Finally, results did not support the typical methods used for combining child and parent reports into one index.     

Over‐imitation in children with autism and Down syndrome

Typically developing children have been shown to imitate the specific means used by an adult to achieve an object‐directed outcome, even if a more efficient method is available. It has been argued that this behaviour can be attributed to social and communicative motivations. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), relative to children with Down syndrome (DS), show a reduced tendency to copy the exact means used by an adult to produce a novel outcome. To achieve this a sample of 34 children (22 with ASD and 12 with DS) were given a test of object‐directed imitation. Contrary to expectation, children in both groups imitated the specific method of the model to the same high extent. This finding is in line with suggestions that object‐directed imitation is relatively spared in children with autism but is surprising given arguments linking such imitation to socially based motivations. Nevertheless, children's ability to successfully copy the model was associated with their communicative ability, providing some support for the link between imitation and communication.     

ADHD children grown up: An empirical review

Little is known about ADHD in adulthood. It has commonly been believed to be restricted to a problem of childhood, however the literature review revealed that long-term adjustment difficulties are in store for a high percentage of children. Hyperactivity was a risk for continuing symptomatology, antisocial and criminal behaviour, educational and occupational failure, social maladjustment and personality problems. It is concluded that psychological interventions are a necessary adjunct to stimulant medication to address the negative aspects associated with the ADHD syndrome.     

How Do Mothers in Prison Differ From Non-Mothers?

Adjustment patterns and criminal characteristics of 350 incarcerated mothers of children under 21 years of age were contrasted to those of 166 women from the same institution that had never had children. There were no observed differences between mothers and non-mothers in terms of self-reported mental illness symptoms, emotional distress, or conflict with other individuals at the prison. There were also no differences in terms of institutional infractions observed by prison officials. Consistent with previous research with the same sample, there were adjustment differences between mothers reporting high versus low levels of parenting stress, but neither group of mothers evidenced different adjustment patterns relative to non-mothers. However, there were differences in criminal characteristics. Mothers were more likely than non-mothers to be incarcerated for property or drug offenses, and were more likely to have at least one current or previous drug offense in their criminal history. Non-mothers were more likely than mothers to be incarcerated for violent offenses, including homicide. Results indicate that although there are differences between mothers and non-mothers in the contexts associated with criminal behavior, both groups show the same range of adjustment problems once in prison.     

Behavioral Genetics as a Tool for Developmental Psychology: Anxiety and Depression in Children and Adolescents

Over the past decade there has been a huge increase in the number of behavioral genetic studies looking into anxiety and depression in children and adolescents. There are now enough data in this area to make a review of the results useful. This paper begins with an outline of the methods used in such research and moves on to review the results in extant studies. Overall, these studies indicate modest to moderate genetic influence on both anxiety and depression. However, behavioral genetic methods are also paramount for exploring environmental influences in addition to genetic influences. Shared environment (that which makes family members resemble one another) is rarely identified in adult studies of personality or psychopathology and does not appear to be a significant influence for depression but it is for anxiety. Nonshared environment, which makes family members differ from one another, is found to be a significant influence for both anxiety and depression. Patterns within these results due to rater effects, age effects, sex effects, the precise phenotype measured, and the study design are explored.     

Entwicklungspsychologische Aspekte von Delinquenz

Children and adolescents are more likely to present aggressive behavior than adults. According to official criminal statistics in Germany approximately one quarter of all delinquents are younger than 25 years. Nevertheless, delinquency is a transient phenomenon in adolescence and the prevalence of delinquency in young adults decreases significantly. Most children show no problems with aggressive behavior or delinquency and only persistent problems with aggressive behavior, violence and conduct problems indicate the necessity for child and adolescent psychiatric diagnostics. The type of aggression (proactive versus reactive) a child presents seems to be predictive for the later outcome and children with proactive aggression are at higher risk for later delinquency and social problems. Lack of empathy and psychopathic traits are further aspects which are of interest in research on etiology of aggressive behavior in children. Both seem to be relevant as predictors of the course of aggressive behavior. Furthermore, attachment problems in infancy, parenting style and ecological factors, such as socioeconomic status and peers have an influence both on the origin and on the course of aggressive behavior in children.     

5至7岁儿童道德判断依据的研究

本研究分别用动机错误程度差异增大与后果严重程度差异缩小的两个系列改编对偶故事对5至7岁儿童的道德判断依据进行了研究。结果表明,在上述两种情况下,儿童由原来的后果判断转为动机判断的人数均达显著性水平。儿童的年龄越大,转变的人数就越多。据此可以认为,这个时期的儿童在进行道德判断时会受到行为后果与行为动机两个方面的影响,只不过是行为后果的影响作用要大大超于行为动机;而随着年龄的增大,两者的相对影响作用逐步会此消彼长。皮亚杰的有关结论应予以补充与修正。     

Bad or Mad? Personality disorders and legal responsibility-the German situation

Criminal offenders have a high rate of personality disorders (PDS), especially Antisocial Personality Disorders and psychopathy, but criminal acts are not necessarily the result of PD. Findings from psychiatric research suggest that the development of PD is influenced by genetic factors, that can result in deviant traits in temper, emotionality and cognitive style. There is general agreement that those peculiarities and vulnerabilities find their expression and structure only under a complex interplay of stimulating or impairing environmental influences. Do these genetic factors-or other factors-diminish a person's criminal responsibility? There is no difficulty in diagnosing PDs, but the challenging questions arise in forensic assessments of defendants for criminal responsibility who have a PD. This article discusses the German legal situation and special problems created by the term of "diminished" criminal responsibility. In contrast to the Anglo-American legal situation, the German criminal law obliges the court to order an indeterminate forensic - psychiatric confinement, in addition to punishment, if the offender had acted under diminished criminal responsibility and is now still considered to be dangerous. The convicted offender remains under the control of the criminal court during psychiatric hospitalization. The change from handling the personality disordered offender as a criminal to handling him as someone with a mental disorder creates a social option for extended state interventions, including indeterminate hospitalization.     

Exploring Directional Consistency in Offending: The Case of Residential Burglary in The Hague

Many aspects of human behaviour are remarkably stable across times, places and situations. Repetition and predictability also characterises our geographical behaviour. Prior research has confirmed that criminal behaviour is no exception. Offenders tend to recidivate, and recidivists tend to be behaviourally consistent in many aspects, including geographical ones. The present study assesses directional consistency in offending. It reviews the literature on directional consistency. It proposes an improved measure of directional consistency, and empirically uses this measure to explore directional consistency amongst a set of 268 burglars in The Hague. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The prediction of delinquency: a correlation between a measure of personality and classroom behaviour

In a study of (N = 120) children exhibiting classroom behaviour problems, a significant correlation was found between the ‘criminal propensity’ (‘C’ score) of a self-report questionnaire and the ‘delinquency predictor’ (‘DP’ score) of a teacher-administered questionnaire. Since the delinquency predictor score has previously been found to be a reliable predictor of later delinquency, the criminal propensity score appears to be worthy of further study.     

A Systematic Review of the Literature on the Use of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy in Criminal Justice Work to Reduce Re-offending

A systematic review of the published literature from 1995 to 2007 considers the published evidence on the use of interventions employing Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy in criminal justice efforts to reduce re-offending. Thirty-six studies are briefly described, summarised and appraised for research quality using a six point scale. Twenty-four studies were excluded from further analysis due to insufficiently rigorous or weak research design and method. Twelve studies were appraised as sufficiently robust to reliably inform the research interest. Further analysis of the studies indicated an association between negative emotional states and offending behaviour, some evidence of REBT effectiveness in treating emotional disturbance in offender populations, and mixed evidence of REBT effectiveness in reducing re-offending. It is concluded that interventions using REBT might be a promising approach for aiding criminal justice aims to reduce re-offending.     

How confession characteristics impact juror perceptions of evidence in criminal trials

A confession is one of the most impactful pieces of evidence that can be presented in a criminal trial, yet very little is known about how perceptions of evidence change based on characteristics of the confession. While researchers know that “circumstances of the setting”, such as length of interrogation, number of interrogators, and lack of sleep, increase the likelihood of false confessions, less is known about whether juror perceptions of the confession are impacted by these factors. The current research builds on the existing literature by evaluating the impact of these situational confession factors to determine whether jurors give weight to characteristics that are known to increase the likelihood of a false confession. Two experimental surveys were conducted, one using a sample of undergraduate students and one using a sample of jury‐eligible adults, in order to determine how respondents perceived a confession's strength. Results showed that confessions arising from lengthy interrogations were perceived to be weaker than those arising from short interrogations. However, multiple interrogators and a lack of sleep had little impact on evidence perceptions; these factors indicate a questionable confession to experts, but not to jurors. The implications for criminal justice theory, criminal trials, and future research are discussed.