The Micro-Category account of analogy

Here, we investigate how activation of mental representations of categories during analogical reasoning influences subsequent cognitive processing. Specifically, we present and test the central predictions of the "Micro-Category" account of analogy. This account emphasizes the role of categories in aligning terms for analogical mapping. In a semantic priming paradigm, a four-word analogy task was compared to two other four-word tasks. Stimuli were identical in all tasks; only the instructions given to participants differed. Participants were instructed to identify analogy relations, category relations, or conventionalized semantic relations in the four-word sets. After each four-word set, a single target word appeared and participants named this word aloud. Target words that referred to category relations in the preceding four-word sets were primed as strongly when participants identified analogies as when participants identified categories, suggesting that activation of category concepts plays an important role in analogical thinking. In addition, priming of category-referent words in the analogy and category tasks was significantly greater than priming of these words when participants identified conventionalized semantic relations. Since identical stimuli were used in all conditions, this finding indicates that it is the activation of category relations, distinct from any effect of basic semantic association, that causes analogical reasoning to prime category-referent words. We delineate how the "Micro-Category" account of analogy predicts these phenomena and unifies findings from diverse areas of research concerning analogical reasoning.     

Reviving inert knowledge: analogical abstraction supports relational retrieval of past events

We present five experiments and simulation studies to establish late analogical abstraction as a new psychological phenomenon: Schema abstraction from analogical examples can revive otherwise inert knowledge. We find that comparing two analogous examples of negotiations at recall time promotes retrieving analogical matches stored in memory—a notoriously elusive effect. Another innovation in this research is that we show parallel effects for real-life autobiographical memory (Experiments 1–3) and for a controlled memory set (Experiments 4 and 5). Simulation studies show that a unified model based on schema abstraction can capture backward (retrieval) effects as well as forward (transfer) effects.     

An Organizational Framework for Occupational Therapy in the Treatment of Alcoholism

Because occupational therapists are increasingly involved with alcoholism rehabilitation, an organizational treatment framework is presented that is based upon the psychodynamics of this diagnosis. Factors that contribute to the development of a unique defense structure characteristic of alcoholism are discussed as prerequisites for understanding the treatment needs of the adult. Treatment is organized into three hierarchical levels that correspond with progressive changes in the alcoholics' defense structure. Alcoholics at level one require directive treatment approaches that do not aggressively confront the preferred, but maladaptive defense mechanism in order to attain abstinence. Teaching coping strategies that provide alternatives to the preferred defense mechanisms are beneficial at level two. The third level involves stimulating the arrested emotional development of the alcoholic thus effectively challenging the continued utilization of these defense mechanisms. Specific occupational therapy methods and frames of reference are outlined that are appropriate for implementation at each treatment level.     

Children's perceptions of intergroup and intragroup similarity and the role of social experience

Perceptions of intragroup and intergroup similarity were assessed in 1st grade (M = 6.78 years, SD = .42) and 4th grade (M = 9.79, SD = .51) boys and girls (N = 382) who attended either ethnically homogeneous or ethnically heterogeneous schools. Children's evaluations of same-race and cross-race friendships were also assessed. European-American children attending homogeneous and heterogeneous schools attributed greater homogeneity to the same-race Black dyads. European-American children attending homogeneous schools, furthermore, focused on skin color in their evaluations of similarity and friendship to a greater extent than did European-American and minority (i.e., African-American, Latin-American, Asian-American) children attending heterogeneous schools. Children attending heterogeneous schools were more positive about friendship in general than children attending homogeneous schools, suggesting that social experiences in school settings are an important context of children's intergroup contact experience. The findings indicate that children's intergroup contact influences their perceptions of similarity and reasoning about cross-race friendship.     

提示对3～11岁儿童解决类比推理问题的影响

随机抽取360名3~11岁儿童,采用几何图形、关系图形、词语、数字、故事五种材料,考察提示对儿童类比推理的影响。结果发现:(1)提示对3~4岁和8~9岁儿童几何图形类比推理成绩有影响;提示对3~4岁和9~11岁儿童词语类比推理成绩有影响;提示对3~11岁儿童数字类比推理成绩均有影响;提示对3岁和8~11岁儿童关系图形类比推理成绩有影响;提示对3~4岁和8~11岁儿童故事类比推理成绩有影响;(2)提示使原本不会类比推理的3岁儿童能够初步进行类比推理。     

Predicting Naming Latencies with an Analogical Model

Skousen's (1989, Analogical modeling of language, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht) Analogical Model (AM) predicts behavior such as spelling pronunciation by comparing the characteristics of a test item (a given input word) to those of individual exemplars in a data set of previously encountered items. While AM and other exemplar-based models enjoy continuing success in their ability to predict what a participant's response to a given task will be, it does not yet include a widely tested mechanism for extending its predictions to other measures of interest in psycholinguistics such as response time (RT). This article reports the results of applying a formula derived in Estes (1959, in: Koch, Psychology: A study of a science, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.) for approximating "mean predicted latency" in decision tasks to the alternative responses and their associated probabilities predicted by AM. The model is tested against six sets of data from previously published naming studies.     

类比迁移研究及其应用

类比迁移是目前研究广泛的一种迁移。本文试图通过对类比迁移的研究,以期对我们学习新知识和技能,解决新问题以及为教育改革和教育产业化有所借鉴。     

Spontaneous analogical transfer in 4-year-olds: a microgenetic study

The purpose of the current microgenetic study was to examine children's spontaneous application of analogical problem solving from story problems to physical tasks. Thirty-six 4-year-olds (M=54.7 months), randomly assigned to an experimental or a control condition, participated. The results indicate that 4-year-old children did, with varying success, spontaneously apply analogical solutions to physical problems across sessions. A positive effect over time on children's spontaneous analogical problem solving was found. Additionally, a few children even gave an analogical strategy-related explanation for their own physical behavior. There was much inter- and intra-individual variability, which may indicate that 4 years of age is a period of change in the development of analogical reasoning.     

Frequency and impact of hands-free telephoning while driving – Results from naturalistic driving data

The frequency and impact of hands-free telephoning while driving was analyzed based on naturalistic driving data from 106 drivers. The results from naturalistic driving data were compared with the results from experimental approaches. The implication of the overall results and the differences across drivers are discussed. Continuous information on the usage of the hands-free phone equipment was available which made it possible to include the entire database (∼1 000 000 km) in a completely automatized analysis. Results show that drivers talked on a hands-free phone about 11% of driving time. There were large differences across drivers in the frequency and usage of a hands-free phone. While telephoning, an adaptation of driving behavior could be found. Drivers slowed down and increased their distance to the lead vehicle. Furthermore, during telephoning, an overall reduction of potentially critical driving situations was found. Overall, the results indicate that compensation for telephoning was carried out with a long-term change of driving behavior, rather than with a short term adaption to the situation.     

Organizational characteristics of empowering community settings: A multiple case study approach

Although empowerment is often cited as a major guiding construct for community psychology, relatively little is known about the characteristics of empowering community settings. The current paper uses a multiple case study methodology to generate a number of key organizational characteristics of empowering community settings to guide future work in the area. In-depth, multilevel, longitudinal research was conducted on three empowering community settings: a religious fellowship, a mutual help organization for persons with severe mental illness, and an educational program for African American students. The organizational features found to characterize all three settings were (a) a belief system that inspires growth is strengths-based, and is focused beyond the self; (b) an opportunity role structure that is pervasive, highly accessible, and multifunctional (c) a support system that is encompassing, peer-based, and provides a sense of community; and (d) leadership that is inspiring, talented, shared, and committed to both setting and members. Limitations of the research are discussed, and directions for future research suggested.     

Identifying the main factors contributing to driving errors and traffic violations – Results from naturalistic driving data

Researchers have identified various factors that likely affect aberrant driving behaviors and therefore crash risk. However, it remains unclear which of these factors poses the greatest risk for either errors or violations under naturalistic driving conditions. This study investigated important variables contributing to driving errors and traffic violations based on naturalistic driving data from the second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP 2). In addition, this study identified factors determining the drivers’ willingness to perform common secondary tasks while driving, which have been associated with different degrees of crash risk. Results showed that anger, passenger presence, and persistent individual differences in driver behavior were the main factors associated with committed violations; surprise, high-risk visually distracting secondary tasks, and the driving task demand passing through an interchange were the main factors associated with errors. The willingness to engage in risky secondary tasks while driving appeared to be related to an overall tendency to engage in risky driving behaviors. However, drivers considered the driving context particularly when engaging in visually distracting secondary tasks. This study’s comprehensive approach should be a step towards generating a complete model of the variables that contribute to, or mitigate dangers in traffic.     

类比的图式驱动效应

本研究采用了两个实验探讨了类比的图式驱动效应即类比的映射不仅是一种外显的推理过程而且也是一种内隐的推理过程,这一内隐过程具有图式驱动效应.实验1要求被试者首先阅读基础课文和目标课文然后回答问题,结果表明在课文阅读过程中存在着内隐推理.实验2采用更加复杂的实验方法检验了影响内隐推理的图式驱动效应,结果发现被试者的类比内隐推理主要受图式驱动或者结构排列的影响而很少受到语义激活或者启动效应的影响.最后,在结构排列理论与图式理论的框架中讨论了本研究的结果.