The effects of 'non-directive' questioning on an anticipated decision whether to undergo predictive testing for heart disease: an experimental study

This study investigates how individuals can be helped to make decisions about predictive genetic testing. Participants (n = 120) rated how likely they would be to opt for predictive testing for heart disease if it were available, and other variables such as anxiety about heart disease. They received information on predictive testing for heart disease and ratings were repeated. Participants were then randomly allocated to one of three groups and focused on the personal relevance of positive issues or negative issues which had been mentioned as part of the standardised information previously given. The third group focused on issues irrelevant to testing for heart disease. The form of questioning used in this focusing manipulation was intended to model the processes involved in non-directive questioning. Results showed a significant increase in likelihood of testing in the positive group, and a significant decrease in the negative group. There was also a significant decrease in rated anxiety about heart disease and perceived severity of an increased susceptibility to heart disease of the negative group relative to the positive and control groups. The results may have implications for the ways in which pre-test counselling is carried out.     

Thought suppression and memory biases during and after depressive moods

Previous research indicates that formerly depressed individuals engage in high levels of thought suppression that can mask depressive cognitions. However, suppression may also ironically foster a vigilance for unwanted thoughts that promotes uncertainty about ambiguous information and distorts memory. The present study tested this possibility. Formerly dysphoric, currently dysphoric, and never-dysphoric participants listened to a series of statements describing life events that were positive, negative, or ambiguous. In a subsequent recognition phase, participants reviewed a series of statements and rated each for the likelihood that it had been presented earlier. The recognition list included positive and negative disambiguated versions of the original items. Compared to the never-dysphoric group, formerly dysphoric individuals were more likely to endorse negative disambiguations. As predicted, this bias was associated with higher levels of thought suppression and greater uncertainty about the meaning of ambiguous situations, suggesting an ongoing conflict between positive and negative thoughts.     

Trait anxiety, trait depression, worry, and memory

A study is reported which investigated the proposal that high trait anxiety is associated with a memory bias for worry themes. Forty-five participants were categorised as being high or low trait anxious on the basis of scores on the (Spielberger et al., 1983) (Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y) (1983)). The participants were requested to rate a number of worry and non-worry statements for how much they generally thought about the issues represented by them. Analysis of the ratings given by the participants showed that low trait anxiety individuals thought about the non-worry items significantly more than worry items. The high trait anxiety participants, however, showed little or no difference in the amount of time spent thinking about worry and non-worry themes. In a subsequent free recall task of the statements it was observed that the low trait anxiety group recalled significantly more non-worry than worry items, whereas there was no such difference for the high trait group. It was also found that the degree of memory bias was related to both positive affectivity and trait anxiety. The implications of such findings are discussed.     

Healthy high-hostiles evidence low-alpha power (7.5-9.5Hz) changes during negative affective learning

The present experiment was designed to better understand the impact of positive and negative emotional processing among low- and high-hostile individuals. Based on previous research which found increased sympathovagal balance among low-hostiles to the negative version of the Affective Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AAVL), it was hypothesized that low-hostiles would experience increased cortical arousal to this stimulus whereas their high-hostile counterparts would not. As expected, low-hostiles experienced significantly reduced low-alpha power (7.5-9.5Hz) relative to high-hostiles during the presentation of the negative AAVL. In a replication of prior research, significant primacy and recency effects were noted for the negative and positive word lists, respectively. Results are discussed in terms of cerebral activation theory and the potential impact of emotional processing among high-hostile individuals and their likelihood to develop coronary heart disease.     

A survey of reimbursement for cystic fibrosis carrier testing

To assess the current status of reimbursement for cystic fibrosis (CF) carrier testing, we surveyed individuals tested in the Mid-Atlantic region. Results show that CF testing was covered by insurance in part or in full for greater than 50% of respondents. The test was nearly always covered when performed during pregnancy because of a positive family history, but it was also covered for more than 50% of pregnant respondents with a negative family history. There were no significant differences in coverage by type of insurance. Many respondents needed to supply additional information about the testing to their insurance company before a coverage decision could be made. Before population-based CF screening programs are initiated, more data are needed on insurance reimbursement for testing, especially when performed pre-conceptually.     

不同性质的评价对特质焦虑者抑制功能影响的ERP研究

特质焦虑者作为焦虑障碍易感性个体,会表现出对威胁性刺激的注意偏向,从而损害中央执行系统的抑制功能。但是不同情绪性评价刺激会如何调控特质焦虑者的抑制功能还不太清楚。为此,本研究以脑电P3b为抑制功能指标,要求高低特质焦虑组在三种不同评价下完成反向眼跳范式,考察不同性质的评价如何影响特质焦虑的抑制功能。行为结果发现,高焦虑组比低焦虑组错误率更高;积极评价条件下,高焦虑组的反应时慢于低焦虑组。ERP结果进一步发现,无评价条件下,高焦虑组的P3b波幅大于低焦虑组;低焦虑者在积极评价条件下的P3b波幅大于消极评价条件,但是高焦虑者没有显著差异。结果表明,积极评价会损害高特质焦虑者的抑制功能,而消极评价则促进了高特质焦虑个体的抑制功能。     

Observers' reactions to genetic testing: the role of hindsight bias and judgements of responsibility

In 3 studies, we examined the effect of birth outcome on observers' reactions to genetic testing. Participants read a scenario in which a woman declined to take a genetic screening test and subsequently gave birth to a child with a genetic disorder (negative outcome) or a healthy child (positive outcome). Retrospective judgments of the likelihood that the child would have a genetic disorder were higher given negative than positive outcome knowledge under conditions of high genetic risk. Moreover, the more likely a negative outcome was perceived to be, the more responsible the mother was held for not taking the genetic screening test. Consistent with Weiner's (1993) theory, responsibility judgments were linked to displeasure and sympathy, with sympathy in turn being related to help judgments.     

高社交焦虑个体对正性面孔的解释偏差

本研究采用情绪启动范式考察社交焦虑个体对正性刺激解释偏差。研究以正性和打碎的面孔为启动项,正性或负性非社交词为目标项,要求高社交焦虑组被试和控制组被试判断目标项的情感色彩,并记录其反应时与准确率。结果发现,两组被试具有不同的情绪启动模式：高焦虑组被试未表现出显著地相容性效应;他们在正性-正性条件下的反应时显著慢于控制组被试。研究结果提示高社交焦虑个体具有对正性社交刺激的解释偏差,他们不能充分理解正性社交刺激的积极含义。     

心理账户的认知标签与情绪标签对消费决策行为的影响

Mental accounting is the set of cognitive operations used by individuals and households to organize, evaluate, and keep track of financial activities. Mental accounting proposes that people utilize a set of cognitive labels to evaluate their financial activities, each of which is associated with different preferences to consume (Levav & McGraw, 2009; Kahneman & Tversky 1984; Thaler 1985, 1990). Mental accounting researchers have shown that windfall gains are spent more readily and frivolously than ordinary income. Consumers prefer to spend their windfall gains on hedonic consumptions but spend their ordinary incomes on utilitarian consumptions. Levav and McGraw (2009) suggested that emotional accounting, including people’s feelings about money, also influences consumer choices. When people have negative feelings toward windfall, they opt to make utilitarian expenditures. However, the process of how cognitive (windfall or ordinary income) and affective (positive or negative emotion) tags interact in consumer behavior was not explored. This study proposes that both cognitive tag and affective tags in mental accounting affect consumer decision making. The objective of this study is to explore the interactive effect of cognitive and affective tags in mental accounting on consumer decision through four studies. In studies 1a and 1b, the effect of cognitive and affective tags in mental accounting on consumer decision making behavior was measured. Study 1a showed that the positive tag of windfall income is preferred for hedonic consumption, whereas the negative tag of windfall income is preferred for utilitarian consumption. Both positive and negative tags of ordinary income are preferred for utilitarian consumption. Study1b utilized a field study to examine actual consumption behavior. The results showed that when people received 15 Yuan RMB as ordinary income, they prefer to spend it on utilitarian consumption regardless of the positive or negative emotion they feel. However, they receive 15 Yuan RMB as windfall income, they prefer to use it for hedonic consumption in the positive emotion and for utilitarian consumption in the negative emotion. Studies 2a and 2b attempted to explore the reason of negative emotion can make windfall income turn from hedonic to utilitarian consumption. Study2a found that when people expect to feel guilty about spending windfall income on hedonic consumption, they would avoid hedonic consumption. Study2b found that when people felt guilty about windfall income, they tend to avoid hedonic consumption. Compared with the low guilt level group, the high guilt level group prefers to use windfall income for utilitarian consumption. These results suggest that cognitive and affective tags influence consumer behavior. The influence of cognitive tag on consumer decision presents the “cognition match effect”, whereas the influence of affective tag on consumer decision presents the “affect match effect”. Both tags also have an interaction effect on consumer decision. Guilt may be a mechanism that results in the negative tag of windfall being preferred for utilitarian consumption.     

儿童期遭受心理虐待个体的自我加工特点

儿童期心理虐待会导致个体形成消极自我,这种消极自我还会影响个体行为。与以往研究采用自我报告方法不同,本研究采用知觉匹配范式,用客观量化方法,以自我加工优势（自我关联会自动增强刺激的加工,表现为人们总是对自己相关信息加工又快又好）来评估儿童期遭受心理虐待个体的自我加工能力。结果发现,儿童期遭受心理虐待个体依然存在自我加工优势,且朋友加工优势得到增强;在消极情绪条件下遭受心理虐待个体自我优势稳定存在,在积极情绪条件其自我优势消失。结论：儿童期遭受心理虐待个体自我整合功能并不稳定,消极情绪维持其自我加工能力,积极情绪则降低其自我加工能力。     

Induced Over-Benefiting and Under-Benefiting on the Web: Inequity Effects on Feelings and Motivations with Implications for Consumption Behavior

Inequity in its many forms has been the subject of a number of empirical research efforts. Results show that positive inequity, an over-benefited condition, and negative inequity, an under-benefited condition, have divergent effects on subsequent affects and behavioral tendencies. We embed equity treatments within a motivational structure to predict reactions to a quasi-shopping experience in which these methods operate in concert. Interaction effects—predicted by procedural justice considerations as well as instrumentally based arguments—are also tested whereby technical motivation is crossed with the equity conditions. In testing, an online experiment was created incorporating pre- and posttreatment measures. While completing a hypothetical sale, respondents received either an unanticipated, completed coupon field (the over-benefited group), an uncompleted, empty coupon field (the under-benefited group), or were not prompted with a coupon field (the control group). Results showed strong negative effects on postexposure satisfaction, intention, and desire to complete the purchase in the empty coupon field group, and similar positive effects in the completed coupon field group. Moreover, a model linking preexposure variables (expectations and technical sophistication) to postexposure measures was supported indicating carry-through effects. Lastly, procedural justice and instrumental predictions received mixed support when testing for the interaction between technical motivation and inequity. Results showed that, for those in the under-benefited group, there was only a slight tendency for those with higher levels of technical sophistication to report greater satisfaction; however a strong tendency was found for the same individuals to report a lower likelihood of completing the purchase. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Duty to Re-Contact: A Study of Families at Risk for Fragile X

DNA testing for Fragile X syndrome is now routinely available through a large number of diagnostic laboratories. We have surveyed individuals from British Columbia Fragile X families identified prior to the availability of DNA testing for FMR1 to determine if they are subsequently receiving information about DNA testing. Of the 78 individuals first seen before the cloning of the FMR1 gene, 39 (50%) had not been seen in the clinic to discuss DNA testing. We initiated a contact program with these 39 patients to determine their interest in DNA testing. Contact was made with 28 individuals, 20 of whom stated interest in testing either for themselves or for a relative. Patient opinions about DNA testing were assessed through questionnaires. In those individuals who stated an interest in DNA testing, the most common reason for wishing testing was to provide information to children or grandchildren. The most common disadvantages of testing indicated by this group were that they had finished their families and that they felt the test would not have a direct impact. The most common reasons individuals were not interested in DNA testing were that there were no family members appropriate to test and that the respondent had completed his or her family. DNA testing has been performed for 13 of the 28 (46%) contacted individuals and/or at least one relative. In view of the high level of interest for testing in families who had not been seen since the cloning of the FMR1 gene, we feel that FMR1 screening programs should include actively contacting previously seen individuals.     

Neuroticism and autobiographical memory for positive and negative events

Highly neurotic individuals tend to ruminate about negative aspects of their lives. Using an autobiographical memory task, the relation between neuroticism and recall latency of specific events was studied. It was predicted that the inverse relation between neuroticism and recall latency would be (a) strongest when subjects were given negative affect prompts and a negative prime; and (b) weakest when subjects were given positive affect prompts and a positive prime. Eighty college students completed a neuroticism scale and were randomly assigned to one of four cells formed by crossing Affect Prompt (positive vs negative) with Affect Prime (positive vs negative). Response times were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Contrary to the hypothesis, no significant effects were observed. Based upon a two component model of autobiographical memory, it was suggested that highly neurotic individuals may be fast at searching for negative experiences, but because they are under chronic psychological distress, they find it difficult to link specific negative emotions with particular classes of daily events.     

Reasons for Declining Preconception Expanded Carrier Screening Using Genome Sequencing

Genomic carrier screening can identify more disease-associated variants than existing carrier screening methodologies, but its utility from patients’ perspective is not yet established. A randomized controlled trial for preconception genomic carrier screening provided an opportunity to understand patients’ decisions about whether to accept or decline testing. We administered a survey to potential genomic carrier screening recipients who declined participation (N = 240) to evaluate their reasons for doing so. Two thirds of women declined participation. We identified major themes describing reasons these individuals declined to participate; the most common were time limitation, lack of interest, not wanting to know the information, and potential cause of worry or anxiety. Most women eligible for genomic carrier screening indicated that their reasons for opting out were due to logistical issues rather than opposing the rationale for testing. As expanded carrier screening and genomic sequencing become a more routine part of clinical care, it is anticipated there will be variable uptake from individuals for this testing. Thus, the advancement of clinical carrier screening from single genes, to expanded screening panels, to an exome- or genome-wide platform, will require approaches that respect individual choice to receive genetic testing for reproductive risk assessment.     

个人目标相关性对非临床抑郁者未来想象的影响

通过两个实验考查了非临床抑郁者未来想象的异常是否受到个人目标相关性的调节。实验1采用未来想象任务, 实验2采用可能性评估范式, 两个实验一致发现, 抑郁倾向者想象未来积极事件的异常, 受到了与个人目标相关性的调节：相对于非抑郁倾向者, 抑郁倾向者对未来与个人目标相关的积极事件的预期减弱, 而对未来与个人目标无关的积极事件的预期则没有表现出异常; 同时还发现, 抑郁倾向者表现出了对未来消极预期的普遍增强, 不受与个人目标相关性的影响。     

Anxiety-linked expectancy bias across the adult lifespan

Anxiety is characterised by a negative expectancy bias, such that anxious individuals report negatively distorted expectations about the future. Contrary to anxiety, ageing is characterised by a positivity effect, such that ageing is associated with a tendency to attend to and remember positive information, relative to negative information. The current study integrates these literatures to examine anxiety- and age-linked biases when thinking about the future. Participants (N=1,109) completed a procedure that involved reading valenced scenarios (positive, negative, or ambiguous) and then rating the likelihood of future valenced events occurring. Results suggest that ageing and anxiety have independent and opposing effects. Heightened anxiety was associated with a reduced expectancy for positive events, regardless of the scenarios’ current emotional valence, whereas increased age was associated with an inflated expectancy for positive events, which was strongest when individuals were processing socially relevant or negative scenarios.     

Adopted Individuals’ Views on the Utility and Value of Expanded Carrier Screening

Adoptees may not have family medical history and ethnicity information. Carrier screening assesses reproductive risk. Expanded carrier screening (ECS) screens for many genetic conditions regardless of a patient’s knowledge of family history and ethnicity. This study aimed to better understand the opinions and attitudes of adopted individuals on the use of ECS in determining a patient’s reproductive genetic risks. Specifically, the study assessed how adopted individuals feel that results of ECS may be useful to them and whether adoptees feel that meeting with a genetics professional in the process of undergoing ECS would be useful. Adult adoptees (N?=?124) were recruited online. Their opinions on ECS were explored. The majority reported they had never been offered carrier screening (92%). The majority of adoptees wanted ECS (76%). Neither the amount of contact with biological relatives nor having medical knowledge about biological relatives was significantly associated with adoptees’ desire to pursue ECS. There was a significant positive correlation between adoptees of higher education levels and the amount they would pay for ECS (p?=?0.004). The majority of participants (95%) indicated a genetics professional would be helpful when undergoing ECS. The findings suggest this population may want ECS and support from genetics healthcare professionals. Advocacy for genetic counseling and testing for adoptees appears justifiable.