The Hairlessness Norm: The Removal of Body Hair in Women

This study aimed to investigate the frequency andmeaning of the removal of body hair in women.Participants were 129 female university students (meanage = 22.3 years) and 137 female high school students (mean age = 14.3 years). Almost all (>95%)were Caucasian. It was found that, as predicted, the vastmajority (92%) of women remove their leg and/or underarmhair, most frequently by shaving. This was irrespective of their feminist beliefs, but wasnegatively related to self-esteem in university students.The reasons cited for hair removal were primarilyconcerned with a desire for femininity andattractiveness. However, the reasons provided for starting toremove body hair differed between the groups, in thatthey were relatively more normative for the universitystudents than for the high school students. It was concluded that women's stated reasons forstarting the practice of hair removal reflectprimarilytheir vantage point as an observer. In fact, removingbody hair is a practice so normative as to go mostly unremarked, but one which contributessubstantially to the notion that womens' bodies areunacceptable as they are.     

Women and Their Body Hair

A major component of "femininity" in the United States today is a hairless body, a norm that developed in the United States between 1915–1945. Little has been written regarding the development of this norm, and virtually no empirical research has been done to assess how universally ascribed to is this standard or why women actually remove their leg and underarm hair. More than 200 women from two national professional organizations responded to a mailed questionnaire (response rate 56%). The majority (around 80%) remove their leg and/or underarm hair at least occasionally. Two types of reasons for shaving emerged: feminine/attractiveness reasons and social/normative reasons. Most women start shaving for the latter reasons but continue to shave for the former reasons. Certain groups, however, were least likely to remove leg and/or underarm hair: strongly feminist women and self-identified lesbians. The results of the study are discussed in terms of the function the hairlessness norm may serve in our culture.     

Gender, Self-Objectification and Pubic Hair Removal

Pubic hair removal is common in college age men and women in the United States and Australia. The present research addresses two questions related to this practice: (1) Are objectification and body shape concerns related to pubic hair removal; and (2) Do these relationships differ by gender? U.S. undergraduates, 148 women and 76 men, completed questionnaires about the presence, frequency of, and reasons for pubic hair removal; self-objectification, including self-surveillance and body shame; self-consciousness in sexual situations; and drives for leanness, thinness, and muscularity. While both genders reported similar rates of pubic hair removal, women reported greater frequency and higher normative, sexiness, and cleanliness reasons for pubic hair removal. Normative and sexiness reasons were positively correlated with self-surveillance. The relationships among normative and sexiness reasons and self-objectification were significantly higher for women with women??s body shame and self-surveillance scores more strongly impacted by normative and sexiness reasons. Findings are interpreted within the framework of objectification theory.     

Body Dysmorphic Disorder among Diverse Racial/Ethnic and Sexual Orientation Groups: Prevalence Estimates and Associated Factors

Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is a psychological disorder characterized by excessive appearance concerns. This cross-sectional study assessed an undergraduate sample of 1,041 participants from a southeastern American university to estimate an overall prevalence of BDD; investigate differences by gender, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation; and also examine the contributions of other related constructs including appearance comparison, obligatory exercise, body image disturbance, and self-esteem. Results indicated an overall prevalence of 4.9%. Women endorsed more symptoms of BDD than men, among women Caucasians and Latinas endorsed more symptoms than African Americans, and sexual minorities endorsed more symptoms than heterosexuals. Overall, BDD symptomatology was negatively correlated with body satisfaction and self-esteem and positively correlated with appearance comparison and obligatory exercise.     

The Cutman: Boxing,the Male Body and the Wound

‘A cutman kneels beside the fighter … [he] works quickly… He knows the fighter wants to be anywhere but here, seen like this. It’s more than blood pouring onto the canvas. It’s pride, ego, hope. The cutman’s job is to keep these things out of the puddle forming between them’ (Jones 2008). Boxing is arguably one of the most visually arresting of sports, its history punctuated with intense, expressive images. This paper examines one category of boxing picture, the photograph of the wounded boxer with a cut, open and bleeding, above his eye. As in the classical legend of the warrior Achilles, the cut above the eye is the boxer’s deadly weakness, the single point of vulnerability in the otherwise ideal, hardened masculine body. The cut, with its spongy tissue and flowing blood, opens up the otherwise contained and contoured body, it represents a soft, feminised man, rather than the male body as metal tool. These themes recall Klaus Theweleit’s ‘Male Fantasies’ (1987), a psychoanalytic account of the violence of the German Freikorps as they fought the revolutionary German working class. Using diaries and letters written by the troops, Theweleit examines their language and imagery and sets out their hatred of women’s sexual bodies, their dread of loss of self and fixed boundaries and of being engulfed and annihilated by the formlessness of the red masses. Drawing on these arguments and the aesthetics of the ideal male body, it is possible to argue that the fascination of the image of the bleeding cut above the boxer’s eye, is as a sign of the beginning of the unravelling of the male warrior body ego and its dissolution into soft, formless matter. Analysing the photographic image of the boxer’s cut face and the aesthetic and bodily traditions on which it draws, this paper concludes that an interdisciplinary methodology, based on art history and the philosophy of sport, can tell us much about the cultural meanings of the athletic male body.     

Dimensions of Trait Attributions Associated with Eyeglasses,Men's Facial Hair,and Women's Hair Length1

This research investigated the effects of men's eyeglasses and facial hair and women's eyeglasses and hair length on the traits associated with facial schemata. One hundred and thirty-five introductory psychology students rated Photo-Ident^TM composites of stimulus persons on 20 adjectival continua. A factor analysis of the scores extracted three factors: Social Value, Social Forcefulness, and Mental Competence. Eyeglasses on both the men and women were associated with attributions of diminished forcefulness and heightened competence. Men's beards were associated with lessened competence. Women's long hair was associated with decreased forcefulness. The results were interpreted in terms of the effects of the independent variables on apparent facial maturity.     

Development and validation of the Male Body Talk Scale: A psychometric investigation

This paper details the development of the Male Body Talk (MBT) scale and five studies supporting the psychometric soundness of scores on this new measure. Participants were 18–65-year-old men recruited via Amazon's Mechanical Turk, introductory psychology courses, and snowball sampling. The MBT scale assesses the frequency with which men engage in negatively valenced body-related conversations with others. Two subscales were identified through a combination of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. The Muscle Talk subscale assesses men's tendency to express concerns regarding degree of muscularity and being too small. The Fat Talk subscale assesses men's tendency to express concerns regarding level of body fat and being overweight. Scores on the MBT scale demonstrated strong internal consistency and moderate test–retest reliability. Evidence of convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of scores on the MBT scale is presented. This new measure is a useful tool for examining how often men engage in negative body talk.     

Neuropsychiatric Features of Lewy Body Disease

Although traditionally associated with Parkinsons disease, the eosinophilic intracytoplasmic neuronal inclusion known as the Lewy body has recently been regarded as the primary neuropathologic finding in a variety of conditions affecting the aging brain. The term Lewy Body Disease (LBD) will be used in this review to refer to a spectrum of clinical states varying from those due to incidental or mildly symptomatic histopathologic changes to progressive dementia and psychosis. Many unanswered questions remain about the neurobehavioral and neuropathological implications of Lewy bodies, but it is useful to consider the LED spectrum in terms of the variable effects on neuropsychiatric function that can be observed clinically.     

Constructive Communication Patterns and Associated Factors Among Male Couples

Constructive communication is an important correlate to examine for sexual health promotion and HIV prevention among male couples. However, few studies have examined the effect of different relationship dynamics on both partners' perceptions of constructive communication. Using dyadic data collected from 361 male couples, the present authors explore which relationship dynamics were associated with constructive communication patterns. The results highlight the relevance of investment in a sexual agreement and trust within the relationship in perceptions of constructive communication. These findings may be particularly useful to guide the development of future dyadic-focused sexual health and HIV preventive interventions for male couples.     

Drug Abuse and Hepatitis C Infection as Comorbid Features of HIV Associated Neurocognitive Disorder: Neurocognitive and Neuroimaging Features

Substance abuse and co-infection with hepatitis C (HCV) are two highly relevant determinants of neurocognitive and neuroimaging abnormalities associated with HIV. Substance abuse and HCV are common in the HIV population and there is increasing evidence that the CNS is directly compromised by these comorbid conditions via additive or synergistic processes. In this article we review the current literature regarding mechanisms of neuronal injury as well as the neuropsychological and neuroimaging signatures associated with substance abuse and HCV status among HIV patients. We discuss specific methodological challenges and threats to validity associated with studies of HIV and comorbid substance use disorders or HCV and review potential strategies for minimizing their confounding effects. Efforts to understand the interactions between HIV, substance abuse and HCV co-infection will lead to more complete models of neuropathogenesis of HIV and a greater understanding of the variability in neuropsychological expression of HIV Associated Neurocognitive Disorder.

Attitudes and Attributions Associated With Female and Male Partner Violence1

In an interview study, we examined attitudes toward intimate partner violence (IPV). We examined whether attitudes toward IPV varied as a function of sample (student, general, and incarcerated), participant gender, and abuse history, or as a function of perpetrator gender. Additionally, participants' conflict‐resolution strategies were examined. Findings revealed that perpetrator gender and participant abuse history were the most influential factors in shaping attitudes. Males and females evaluated violence similarly. Overall, there was greater acceptance for abuse perpetrated by females than by males, and participants who had either perpetrated or received abuse were the most condoning of IPV. A lack of conflict skills was associated with IPV. For males, this lack of skills generalized to situations outside of the relationship.     

Male body satisfaction: factorial and construct validity of the Body Parts Satisfaction Scale for Men

Given the centrality of body dissatisfaction in the manifestation of eating, exercise, and affective disturbances in men, measurement of this construct becomes essential. Across 2 studies with male undergraduates (Ns = 189 and 188), the psychometric properties, including incremental validity and factor structure, of the 25-item Body Parts Satisfaction Scale for Men (BPSS-M) were examined. Three factors--Upper Body, Legs, and Face--that included items measuring both muscularity and leanness were established. The factors were internally consistent and temporally stable (over 6 months), and support was found for their convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity. Further, we established that, after controlling for social desirability and drive for muscularity, body satisfaction contributes uniquely to men's experience of disordered eating, negative affect and mood, and psychological well-being. The BPSS-M yielded reliable and valid scores with undergraduate men, suggesting that it may be useful for understanding not only body satisfaction but disordered eating and affective disturbances as well.     

Body Image Concerns and Contingent Self-Esteem in Male and Female College Students

Body dissatisfaction in females, and to a lesser extent males, is associated with low self-esteem, depression, and eating disorders. This research examined gender as a moderator of the association between contingent self-esteem and body image concerns, including weight and muscularity. Participants included 359 (59.1% female) heavy drinking first-year U.S. undergraduate students who completed a survey assessing health-related risk behaviors. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to examine relations among gender, contingent self-esteem, and body image. Females reported higher levels of contingent self-esteem and greater concerns about their weight, although males reported a greater drive for muscularity. The relationship between contingent self-esteem and weight concerns was stronger among females, and for males, greater contingent self-esteem was associated with a greater drive for muscularity.     

Development and psychometric evaluation of the Male Body Attitudes Scale (MBAS)

A measure of men's attitudes toward their body (MBAS) was developed and evaluated via three independent samples of college men. In Studies 1 and 2, factor analyses determined and cross-validated the MBAS's underlying structure. Three factors emerged from the items: muscularity, low body fat, and height. Studies 1 and 2 provided construct (i.e., convergent, concurrent, and discriminant) validity evidence for the MBAS total scale and subscales; they were related or not related as expected to drive for muscularity, body esteem, internalization of the muscular ideal, pressures for muscularity, pressures for thinness, self-esteem, body comparison, eating disorder symptomatology, and impression management. Study 3 revealed that the MBAS total score and subscale scores were stable over a 2-week period. The internal consistency reliabilities for the total score and subscale scores were high across all three studies. The MBAS should prove useful for researchers and clinicians interested in men's body image assessment.     

Features of Interview Questions Associated with Attenuation of Symptom Reports

Previous studies have suggested that discrepant reporting in a test–retest reliability paradigm is not purely random measurement error, but partly a function of a systematic tendency to say no during retest to questions answered positively at initial testing (attenuation). To examine features of interview questions that may be associated with attenuation, three raters independently assessed the structural and content features of questions from the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (version 2.3) and linked these to data from a test–retest reliability study of 223 community respondents (parent and child reports). Results indicated that for both parent and youth reports, item features most strongly associated with attenuation were (a) being a stem question (asked of all respondents, regardless of any skip structure); (b) question placement in the first half of the interview; (c) question length; (d) question complexity; or (e) requiring assessment of the timing, duration, or frequency of a symptom. Findings may be explained by participants' conscious efforts to avoid further questions or by their learning more about the nature and purpose of the interview as they gain more experience; alternatively, findings may represent a methodological artifact of structured interview design.     

The Male Body Attitudes Scale: A confirmatory factor analysis with a sample of gay men

The Male Body Attitudes Scale (MBAS; Tylka, Bergeron, & Schwartz, 2005) is a recently created instrument which assesses males’ attitudes regarding their muscularity, body fat, and height. Although the MBAS was created via exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, its factor structure has yet to be replicated with more diverse samples. The aim of the current study was to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis of the MBAS with a sample of gay men. Results from an online sample of 207 self-identified gay men revealed that the original three-factor structure of the MBAS, as well as a two-factor structure, consisting of muscularity and body fat, displayed strong factorial validity. These findings suggest that either a two- or three-factor structure may be used when assessing body image concerns in gay men.     

Psychometric properties of the Revised Male Body Attitudes Scale among Irish men

The psychometric properties of a revised version of the Male Body Attitudes Scale (Tylka, Bergeron, & Schwartz, 2005) were investigated using two independent online samples of Irish men (ns=241 and 253, respectively). Exploratory factor analyses suggested that a 15-item, 3-factor solution representing men's attitudes toward their body fat, muscularity, and height best described the data. The internal consistency and construct validity of scores on the Revised Male Body Attitudes Scale suggest that this measure holds promise as an indicant of men's attitudes toward their physical appearance. Limitations and strengths associated with the current research are discussed and directions for future research are outlined.     

Prevalence and Predictors of Psychological Violence Against Male Victims in Intimate Relationships in Canada

Psychological violence involves expressive violence (i.e., the use of words to humiliate or psychologically harm a partner) and coercive violence (i.e., controlling behavior directed to dominate and manipulate a partner). From studies that collect data on both physical and psychological violence, it is apparent that psychological violence is the most prevalent form of intimate partner violence (IPV). However, psychological violence is one of the dimensions of IPV that has received relatively less attention. Furthermore, very little is known about the state of female-to-male psychological violence, as most studies on the subject have focused on female victims. This study seeks to understand recent trends and prevalence of psychological violence in male-to-female and female-to-male relationships in Canada. Using the 2014 General Social Survey (Victimization) data, the risk factors of female-to-male psychological violence were analyzed. The findings of the analysis revealed that there are significant differences in the prevalence of psychological violence among victims when gender is taken into consideration. The study also revealed that childhood victimization, childhood exposure to domestic violence, marijuana use, and educational attainment are predictors of female-to-male psychological violence. The study highlights the need for more studies to be conducted to attain a better understanding of the nature and context of psychological violence in heterosexual relationships.     

Gender Role Development and Body Image among Male and Female First Year College Students

In the current study we examined associations between gender role development and body image. Male and female first-semester college students (N = 434) who identified as African American, Latino/a American, and European American completed surveys about gendered personality traits (instrumentality/expressivity), gender role attitudes, and aspects of body image (e.g., satisfaction, orientation). Gendered traits were more frequently associated with body image than were gender role attitudes. In particular, individuals who were more instrumental and less inauthentic in their relationships felt more positive about their bodies. Gender role attitudes were also associated with body image, but sometimes in an unexpected direction. These findings highlight the importance of examining multiple components of gender role development and body image in both men and women.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 2004 Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, Baltimore, MD. This research was supported by grant R01 HD 41720 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development to Eva S. Lefkowitz.