Gender asymmetry in common couple violence

In companion studies I examine the acceptability of two forms of “common couple violence” that vary in seventy. According to Johnson (1995), common couple violence is enacted equally by both men and women, is therefore gender symmetrical, and can be distinguished from patriarchal terrorism, which often includes frequent and systematic violence enacted by men in the control and domination of women. The 160 randomly selected respondents in Study 1 (representative of a midsize northeastern American university) were asked whether they would be likely to hit their partner, and whether they would expect to be hit, in any one of 10 situations common to a dating relationship. Contrary to the expectations of gender symmetry, 83% of the women indicated they would be at least somewhat likely to hit their partner in any one situation compared to 53% of the men. Men were also more likely to report expecting to be hit (70%) than women (50%). Interactions of gender with dating status or year in school cannot account for these findings: however, women and men differ in their motivations. Although most men enact violence for reasons similar to women—because they are angry or contused—a sizable minority of men invoke violence because of strong feelings like love or hate. Study 2 queried 97 randomly selected students about their willingness to use a more serious form of violence (i.e., beating up their partner). Findings were similar to Study 1 with one exception. In most instances, women report a greater expectation of being beaten.     

Gender Violence as a Social Problem in Spain: Attitudes and Acceptability

Although violence against women (VAW) is not strictly a new phenomenon, its visibilization and the social rejection it produces are recent and, in this sense, it would be appropriate to consider it as an emerging social problem. This paper analyses how a particular form of this violence, intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW), is currently considered as a social problem in Spain. We present some data from different surveys carried out previously in Spain. Specifically, this review provides an overview of acceptability and public attitudes that support the use of this violence and focuses on the effect of gender and gender role attitudes. The data review shows that Spanish society as a whole, considers IPVAW as a social problem and rejects it, but there are still some violence-supportive attitudes, such as victim blaming, and also a gender gap in the consideration of this violence. We discuss the implications of these data on the management and prevention of IPVAW.     

Predicting Bidirectional Intimate Partner Violence: Demographic and Historical Factors That Influence Initiating Threats or Use of Violence by IPV Victims

Using data from the National Violence Against Women Survey, this study explored the role of gender and other demographic and historical factors that influence initiating threats or use of violence among a sample of intimate partner violence (IPV) victims—an element of bidirectional violence. For this study, involvement in a relationship marked by bidirectional violence was defined as an affirmative response to this question: Were you the first person to use/threaten physical force? after respondents self-identified as IPV victims. The hypothesized model to predict initiating threats or use of violence among male victims was not significant, but marital status, income, employment status, and childhood victimization experiences did significantly predict female behavior. Age, race, education, alcohol use, drug use, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms were not useful in explaining model variance for men or women. The rates of perpetration were equivalent for males and females; however, these findings suggest that gender is still an important context to consider when theorizing about bidirectional IPV.     

From a Static to a Dynamic Approach to the Study of Partner Violence

Feminist and family violence scholars disagree over how partner violence should be studied and understood. One may expect that the use of different observation units would serve as a backdrop to the controversy, yet most studies in the field are based on single individual behavioral units of observation that are context-free. The present article attempts to propose a complementary or alternative observational unit. This unit of observation focuses on the aggressive interactions between the intimate partners, and enables researchers not only to explore the causes and consequences of the aggressive behavior but also to capture and analyze the dynamics of the partners’ conflicts that escalate to violence. The interactional observation unit can serve to advance the accumulating knowledge in the field as well as the discussion on the role of gender in partner violence.     

A POSTMODERN APPROACH TO WOMEN'S USE OF VIOLENCE: DEVELOPING MULTIPLE AND COMPLEX CONCEPTUALIZATIONS

We review the research on intimate partner abuse and, in particular, the articles in this issue, from within a feminist and postmodern framework. Research on women's use of violence is reviewed in terms of how researchers have constructed and measured violence and have conceptualized intimate partner violence (IPV) and gender. What and how we measure determines what we find ( McHugh & Cosgrove, 2005 ). We call for new conceptualizations of intimate violence and for more complex constructions of gender. We offer a postmodern perspective on gender and IPV arguing that interpersonal violence always involves gender, that approach and method influence results, and that men and women use violence in both similar and different ways.     

Issues of Reliability in Measuring Intimate Partner Violence during Courtship

The current paper focuses on problems in conceptualizing and establishing reliability when using self-administered measures of intimate partner violence to assess dating violence. Establishing reliability is an important step in the development of dating violence assessment instruments. However, the nature of dating violence can make it difficult to establish reliability. Most notably, measures of intimate partner violence in courtship yield data that are positively skewed, with almost no one reporting high levels of violence. This could have implications for the calculation of several forms of reliability that assume normality (e.g., Pearson correlations, intraclass correlations). In addition, there are other characteristics of dating violence that could impact reliability. For example, partner violence perpetrators do not necessarily use multiple acts (internal consistency reliability) or repeat specific acts (test-retest reliability). And, gender differences in the perception of partner violence may influence intra-couple reliability in heterosexual couples. Finally, statistical interdependence within couples makes current intra-couple reliability assessment suspect. Research is reviewed and recommendations are made concerning the establishment of test-retest reliability, intra-couple reliability, and internal consistency reliability for measures of dating violence.     

The Intersection of Mutual Partner Violence and Substance Use Among Urban Gays,Lesbians, and Bisexuals

Intimate partner violence among gays and lesbians has gained increased attention in recent years. The present study assessed mutual partner violence within a gay, lesbian, bisexual (GLB) community sample to explore how mutual partner violence relates to the use of psychoactive substances. The results suggest that individuals engaging in mutual partner violence are more likely to report the use of numerous drugs than other subjects. However, this finding holds more consistently among men. The results also indicate that the exchange of violence is more significant for substance use than the particular type of violence involved. The authors suggest that minority stress may be an underlying mechanism of both substance use and partner violence and may contribute to the intersection of these deviant phenomena in the GLB community.     

It Takes Two to Tangle: Gender Symmetry in Intimate Partner Violence

This study examined the equivalence of male and female intimate partner violence (IPV) across three samples of the New Zealand population (student, general, and incarcerated). Additionally, we compared the attitudes of victims and perpetrators. Findings revealed that although the incarcerated sample experienced a higher frequency of violence, the nature of IPV was similar across the samples. More importantly, our findings showed gender symmetry in IPV with male and female IPV being similar in frequency, severity, and injury. There was, however, some variation in the type of physical abuse acts perpetrated as a function of gender. Furthermore, victims and perpetrators reported similar attitudes and behaviors that differentiated them from participants with no history of physical violence. These included being more hostile, holding traditional gendered beliefs, and lacking communication and anger management skills. A rethinking of how we view IPV is recommended in light of these findings.     

Theorizing Gender in Intimate Partner Violence Research

Research findings of sex-symmetry in the perpetration of intimate partner assaults have sparked vigorous debate about the appropriate definition and measurement of intimate violence. A neglected but central issue in this debate is the conceptualization and measurement of gender. This article first examines the often unstated theoretical perspective on gender that underlies the research on sex-symmetry in intimate partner violence. This perspective treats gender as an individual characteristic of persons. Next, I describe challenges to the individualist model of gender from two emerging theoretical perspectives—interactionist and structuralist gender theories. The article concludes with suggestions for research on intimate partner violence that are informed by these new gender theories.     

Measuring intimate partner violence among male and female farmworkers in San Diego County, CA

Although there are over one million farmworkers in the United States, little is known about intimate partner violence (IPV) among this population. Given the particular demands of agricultural labor, however, farmworkers and their partners are highly susceptible to a host of occupation-specific stressors that may result in relationship conflict, and thereafter IPV. In cases where one or both members of the dyad engage in problematic drinking, the likelihood of violence increases exponentially. The purpose of this exploratory quantitative study was to estimate the prevalence of IPV among a mixed gender sample of farmworkers in San Diego County, California, and assess the association of potential correlates (acculturation- and work-related stress, problem drinking, and impulsivity) to IPV. Bilingual interviewers conducted survey data collection by using standardized instruments (e.g., Revised Conflict Tactics Scale; Migrant Farm Work Stress Inventory; AUDIT). Nearly all participants (n = 100) were Mexican born. Results showed that approximately 16% of female individuals (n = 61) and 32% of male individuals (n = 37) reported partner violence perpetration, victimization, or both, in the past year. Significant correlates of IPV were problem drinking (among males) and impulsivity (among females). This study demonstrates the feasibility of conducting IPV research among male and female farmworkers. Additional research is warranted to more fully explore the role of acculturation- and work-related stress, drinking, and other personal characteristics and environmental factors in precipitating couple conflict and thereafter IPV.     

A review of the evidence on the relationship between gender and adolescents' involvement in violent behavior

Adolescents' involvement in violence is a public health concern worldwide, with male adolescents more likely than female adolescents to be involved. A review of the literature published between 1990 and 2011 was conducted to examine the risk and protective factors associated with gender and adolescents' involvement in violent behavior. While research suggests there is an association between gender and involvement in violent behavior, the strength of this association appears to be mediated by gender relationships with other risk and protective factors. Moreover, these relationships appear to vary amongst different communities. Prior to the development and implementation of violence prevention strategies, consideration should be given to collecting longitudinal data specific to the target community. These data would guide the development of effective prevention strategies to ensure they address local needs, influences, and associations between gender and other risk and protective factors.     

The maleness of violence in dating relationships: an appraisal of stereotypes

This study clarifies and adds to our understanding of how gender and gender orientation affect physical aggression in dating relationships. The stereotype of male violence assumes that men exclusively or nearly exclusively use abusive and violent behavior to manage conflict situations with an intimate partner, and that the more violent men will be more masculine. Data from a sample of 336 undergraduates indicate that the expected sex differences were not observed; among college students, physical aggression in dating relationships is not gender-specific. However, gender orientation was significantly related to courtship aggression. A more masculine and/or less feminine gender orientation and variations in relationship seriousness proved to be the two strongest predictors of both men's and women's involvement in courtship violence. Findings are discussed in terms of the masculine mystique and the male role norms in our culture's superstructure.This project was funded in part by a faculty research grant from Holy Cross College.     

Friends in Need: Bystander Intervention for Intimate Partner Violence in Beijing and Seoul

How and why friends respond to control intimate partner violence has seldom been studied in survey data, in cross-cultural comparisons, or outside the United States. Moreover, the study of such responses has been siloed in two different research streams. The concept of bystander intervention has been mainly studied in psychology, whereas informal social control has been used in sociology. We use comparative data from two East Asian cultures (China and South Korea) to hypothesize and test for relationships among totalitarian-style partner control, Confucian gender role norms, secrecy regarding intimate partner violence (IPV), and two types of bystander intervention. The data consist of random probability samples of married/partnered women from Beijing (n?=?301) and Seoul (n?=?459). Multilevel models with the combined data indicate that protective intervention is negatively associated with Confucian gender role norms. Punitive intervention is associated with IPV secrecy and totalitarian-style partner control. There were important differences between Beijing and Seoul. Although not significant in the combined Seoul and Beijing data, totalitarian-style partner control and neighborhood informal social control were associated with more protective intervention in the Beijing model, but not in the Seoul model. Totalitarian-style partner control and IPV secrecy were associated with punitive intervention in Seoul, but not in Beijing. Interestingly, punitive intervention was positively associated with neighborhood socioeconomic status. Lower social cohesion in Beijing may explain differences in perceived bystander intervention between the two cities. Interventions for IPV must be thoroughly grounded in a deep understanding of sociocultural factors influencing bystander intervention.

     

Prevalence and Predictors of Psychological Violence Against Male Victims in Intimate Relationships in Canada

Psychological violence involves expressive violence (i.e., the use of words to humiliate or psychologically harm a partner) and coercive violence (i.e., controlling behavior directed to dominate and manipulate a partner). From studies that collect data on both physical and psychological violence, it is apparent that psychological violence is the most prevalent form of intimate partner violence (IPV). However, psychological violence is one of the dimensions of IPV that has received relatively less attention. Furthermore, very little is known about the state of female-to-male psychological violence, as most studies on the subject have focused on female victims. This study seeks to understand recent trends and prevalence of psychological violence in male-to-female and female-to-male relationships in Canada. Using the 2014 General Social Survey (Victimization) data, the risk factors of female-to-male psychological violence were analyzed. The findings of the analysis revealed that there are significant differences in the prevalence of psychological violence among victims when gender is taken into consideration. The study also revealed that childhood victimization, childhood exposure to domestic violence, marijuana use, and educational attainment are predictors of female-to-male psychological violence. The study highlights the need for more studies to be conducted to attain a better understanding of the nature and context of psychological violence in heterosexual relationships.     

Size Does Matter: The Effects of Gender on Perceptions of Dating Violence

Previous research has shown that people perceive intimate partner violence (IPV) as more serious in cases involving a male perpetrator and female victim versus other gender combinations. This study is the first to explore reasons for these differences. 181 undergraduates at a U.S. southeastern college rated one of four dating violence vignettes that varied by perpetrator and victim gender. Participants viewed male-on-female violence as more frightening primarily because males are stronger and bigger than female perpetrators. Physical differences were rated as significantly more important causes of fear than other personality/relationship dynamics. Because males are actually stronger and bigger than females, it appears that gendered perceptions of violence are based in real-world knowledge of gender differences, not merely gender stereotypes.     

Intimate Partner Violence among West African Immigrants

Although the number of African immigrants arriving to the United States has increased significantly, there has been little investigation regarding their experiences of intimate partner violence or coping strategies. This study used focus groups and individual interviews to explore intimate partner violence among 32 heterosexual West African immigrants. Results suggest that although cultural expectations influence their coping strategies, West African–born men and women face different realities, with women reporting multiple instances of abuse and a sense of frustration with the existing options for assistance. Although participants discussed multilevel support structures within the immediate West African community to address intimate partner violence, all of these options maintained a gender hierarchy, leaving women dissatisfied. Challenges and barriers to partner violence resolution and coping strategies are identified. Results are examined in terms of their implications for addressing the needs of this underserved population. Implications for future research and services are discussed and highlighted.     

The case against the role of gender in intimate partner violence

I argue that Gondolf, Johnson and Dekeseredy, in a recent issue of Aggression and Violent Behavior: A Review Journal, presented one sided arguments and misleading evidence for the role of gender in intimate partner violence (IPV). Johnson and Dekeseredy use only female victim samples and Gondolf only a male perpetrator sample. These methods generate spurious support for the gender paradigm. Better methodology; longitudinal and laboratory studies indicate that bilateral IPV, matched for level of severity is the most common form of IPV. Our policies should be directed towards this most common form not the relatively rare "wife battering". The stereotype of IPV proffered by the gender paradigm has obscured the dyadic patterns and psychological profiles of IPV so that a "one size fits all" approach has been the normative response. The future of IPV policy lies in prevention and in models that treat abusive families as coherent systems.     

Do beliefs about aggression predict physical aggression to partners?

Three hypotheses concerning the association between instrumental (I) and expressive (E) beliefs about aggression and physical aggression were assessed among a sample comprising students (n=40), women from a domestic violence shelter (n=29), and male prisoners (n=46), all of whom had committed at least one act of physical aggression to a partner. Participants completed an adapted version of the EXPAGG [Archer and Haigh (1997a): British Journal of Social Psychology 35:1–23] to measure I and E beliefs about aggression, the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) [Straus (1979): Journal of Marriage and the Family 41:75–88] for themselves and their partner, and measures of fear and injuries resulting from partner violence. I beliefs predicted self‐reported physical aggression to the partner, most CTS acts of physical aggression, and injuries to the partner, with only minor and limited associations for E beliefs. Correlations for the student and prisoner samples, and for men and women, showed different strengths. The findings supported a general link between I beliefs and aggression but offered no support for the predictions that the link would be restricted to men or to men who showed a persistent pattern of violence to their partners. Aggr. Behav. 29:41–54, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

A Psychosocial Resource Impairment Model Explaining Partner Violence and Distress: Moderating Role of Income

This study examines the role of income in a psychosocial resource impairment model that explains partner violence and distress. Using data from a nationally representative sample, we test whether psychosocial resources of social support and self-esteem operate differently in four income groups (poor, “working”-poor, middle and upper-income). Structural equation modeling shows that among women considered working-poor, low self-esteem is relevant for the process through which violence becomes linked to distress. Women of upper-income appear distinct with negative interactions serving as sole mediator of violence and distress. Other findings indicate impaired support may mediate the violence and distress relation for women, regardless of income. Overall, income partially moderates the impact of partner violence on distress, suggesting social contexts should be considered when examining the effects of violence.     

An Empirical Test of Target Congruence Theory on Intimate Partner Violence

The purpose of the current study was to test target congruence theory as an explanation of intimate partner violence. Specifically, the effects of target vulnerability, target gratifiability, and target antagonism were examined for their effects on intimate partner violence against women. To do this, data collected in 2009 from a sample of 1,452 respondents to the Canadian General Social Survey were analyzed using binary logistic regression. Overall, the results suggest support for the theory, particularly for the concept of target gratifiability, and for target vulnerability to a lesser degree. As the first study to apply the theory to intimate partner violence, findings suggest that target congruence may be a valuable theoretical perspective in understanding victimization risk.