Gender Effects in Couples' Sexual Decision Making and Contraceptive Use

Previous research has demonstrated that men tend to be more influential than women in mixed-sex dyads. The current study was an examination of sex differences in influence among dating couples making two different kinds of sexual decisions. In a laboratory decision-making task, male and female partners wrote their opinions about premarital sex and contraception independently, and then worked together as a couple to write a joint opinion. The results replicated previous findings in that the male partners' responses were more similar to the couples' responses than were the females'. An examination of gender influence in the couples' contraceptive behavior , however, indicated that the female partners were more influential than the males in this arena. Thus the data suggest that while men in general may be more influential than women in couples' decision making, there are specific decision domains in which women have considerable influence. Factors that influence gender effects in sexual decision making are discussed.     

Parental Gender Expectations by Socioeconomic Status and Nativity: Implications for Contraceptive Use

Parental gender expectations, which may be egalitarian or not, could vary by nativity and socioeconomic status. Parental gender expectations provide a model for children’s gender role attitudes and could also have effects on reproductive health over the life course, including women’s contraceptive choices. Yet, parental gender expectations are not often studied quantitatively. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, we examine how parental gender expectations in the United States vary by immigrant generation and socioeconomic status, whether parental gender expectations in adolescence are associated with young women’s contraceptive use, and if nativity moderates that relationship. Results show that parental gender expectations vary significantly by immigrant generation and parental socioeconomic status. Both first and second generation women are significantly less likely to have lived in households with equal gender expectations compared to the third generation. Higher socioeconomic status is associated with equal gender expectations. Among participants from households with equal gender expectations, the second generation is more likely than the third generation is to use a male-controlled contraceptive method versus no method. Using a nationally representative sample, our study demonstrates that parental gender expectations vary by nativity and by the socioeconomic context of the family in which they are embedded as well as have a unique effect on the contraceptive behavior of second generation women.     

Use of Social Support: Gender and Personality Differences

Sex differences in social support have been explained in terms of gender differences in socialization and personality. The current research focused directly on the link between social support and gender variables. An adult, largely Caucasian sample of both sexes reported an experience in which they had received support, and were assessed on masculinity, femininity, nurturance, affiliation, autonomy, and self-confidence. The results revealed that gender, but not sex, was significantly correlated with patterns of social support. Femininity (in both sexes) was associated with seeking and receiving emotional support, and with seeking and receiving support from women. Masculinity (in both sexes) was linked only with receiving tangible support. These findings argue for the significance of femininity in promoting a more social form of well-being, and underscore the importance of studying gender directly rather than relying on sex as a proxy variable.     

Social Capital, Social Networks, and Political Participation

Social Capital is created through the patterns of interdependence andsocial interaction that occur within a population, and we attempt to understand the participatory consequences of these patterns relative to the effects of human capital and organizational involvement. The production of social capital in personal networks was examined with the use of social network and participation data from the 1992 American study of the Cross National Election Project. The results suggest that politically relevant social capital (that is, social capital that facilitates political engagement) is generated in personal networks, that it is a by-product of the social interactions with a citizen's discussants, and that increasing levels of politically relevant social capital enhance the likelihood that a citizen will be engaged in politics. Further, the production of politically relevant social capital is a function of the political expertise within an individual's network of relations, the frequency of political interaction within the network, and the size or extensiveness of the network. These results are sustained even while taking account of a person's individual characteristics and organizational involvement. Hence, the consequences of social relations within networks are not readily explained away on the basis of either human capital effects or the effects of organizational engagement.     

Problem-Solving Appraisal,Oral Contraceptive Use,and Menstrual Pain1

The effects of self-appraisal problem-solving ability and oral contraceptive use on ratings of menstrual pain were studied among 130 undergraduate women. Participants completed the Problem-Solving Inventory (Heppner, 1988) and the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (Moos, 1984). Regression analyses indicated that oral contraceptives–which are often prescribed to relieve menstrual pain among college women–were not predictive of lower pain ratings. Problem-solving appraisal, however, was significantly predictive of pain. Ratings of effective personal control during problem solving were associated with lower ratings of premenstrual and menstrual pain. Results are discussed as they pertain to the study of psychological factors in menstruation, and to the study of problem solving and behavioral health.     

History, Community Milieu, and Christian-Muslim Differentials in Contraceptive Use in Sub-Saharan Africa

In the globalization discourse, Christianity and Islam are often construed as representing two traditions that are conflicted and incompatible. This study engages the "clash of civilizations" discourse by examining Muslim-Christian differentials in the use of modern contraception in Nigeria, where Christians have a much higher contraceptive prevalence, and Tanzania, where Muslims are somewhat more likely to use contraception. Employing data from six nationally representative surveys conducted in the two countries between 1990 and 2004 and multilevel logistic regression, we find that the effects of religion remain strong but operate largely through the community religious milieu. Contraceptive use tends to be highest in religiously mixed areas, but the "optimal" religious makeup differs between the two nations, reflecting the historically shaped configurations of their religious expressions and politics.     

Gender,Sexuality, and Social Change in Contemporary China

Drawing upon Raymond Williams’ notion of culture and in-depth interviews with 40 women, this article examines forces that have shaped the landscape of sexuality in China. It argues that the process of changing sexuality contains multiple and overlapping forms of sexual culture, in which the party-state’s ideology, emergent sexual cultures and traditional Chinese beliefs intertwine and struggle. In addition to age-based differences in attitudes towards sexual practices within studies of youth culture, this study incorporates a class-based variable into the account.     

Gender, Sexual Experience, and the Sexual Double Standard: Evaluations of Female Contraceptive Behavior

The purpose of the present research was to compare men's and women's perceptions of female contraceptive behavior and investigate the relationship between sexual experience and these perceptions. One hundred forty-six predominantly Caucasion males (n = 76) and females (n = 70) were randomly assigned to one of three sexual scenarios in which a male provided the condom in a sexual encounter, a female provided the condom, or no condom was used. They were then asked to rate the female on several behavioral and personality measures and to complete a sexual experience scale. Results showed differences in the way men and women perceived the female target. A positive correlation was also found between sexual experience and more favorable perceptions of the sexually-prepared female.     

Gender Schematicity,Gender Identity Salience,and Gender‐Linked Language Use

Using self‐categorization theory, the effects of sex, chronic gender accessibility (i.e., gender schematicity), and gender identity salience on gender‐linked language use in e‐mail are examined. Results confirmed interactive effects only. Gender schematic men and women whose gender was salient used typical gender‐linked language (e.g., men used male language). With low gender salience, schematic men and women used countertypical gender‐linked language (e.g., men used female language). The language of nonschematics varied minimally. Results are discussed regarding previous research on gendered language, the nature of gender identity salience, and examining gendered language in computer‐mediated communication.     

Personal Control, Self-Efficacy in Sexual Negotiation, and Contraceptive Risk among Adolescents: The Role of Gender

Adolescents’ sexual decision making is shaped by normative ideas about “appropriate” sexual roles for women and men; consequently, the motivation and ability to engage in safer sex may be different for adolescent girls and boys. The aim of this study was to explore how social–psychological resources influence the behavior of girls and boys within the highly gendered and inequitable domain of sexual relationships. I used data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) to examine whether personal control and self-efficacy in sexual negotiation are associated with contraceptive risk (engaging in sexual intercourse or not using condoms) among adolescents and whether these associations differ for adolescent boys and girls. Results indicate that personal control and self-efficacy in sexual negotiation are significantly associated with safer sex behavior, and are often more important for girls than for boys in predicting contraceptive risk.     

Gender and Social Loafing in Japan

Abstract

The author investigated gender differences in social loafing among 18 men and 18 women in Japan. The participants were divided into groups of 9 members. Ropes were connected to strongly built steel frames set near the ceiling of the laboratory. Each participant had to pull the rope as through arm wrestling. The participants engaged in 12 trials—2 individual trials and 10 group trials. In the group trials, the participants believed that only the group's power, but not individual participants' power, was being gauged. The difference between the data from individual trials and the data from group trials was adopted as a measure of social loafing. The women tended to loaf less than the men, and the men's effort suddenly declined when the situation was changed from an individual to a collective work setting. However, the women did not show that change. The author interpreted the findings from the viewpoint of gender difference in the quality of achievement motivation among Japanese participants.     

Predicting Adolescents' Initiation of Intercourse and Contraceptive Use

This paper examines whether variables consistent with problem behavior theory predict grade of onset of first intercourse and adoption of effective contraception. A total sample of 3,419 Wisconsin adolescents in Grades 7, 9, and 11 participated in a survey of health-related behaviors administered 3 times across a 6-year period. The sample is 87% White. Multiple regression methods generated different models for onset of sexual intercourse vs. contraceptive adoption. Consistent with problem behavior theory, sexual onset is predicted by the adolescent's behavioral system, perceived peer substance use/abuse, importance of friends, and extent to which the adolescent felt harried and believed it was okay to break laws. Contraceptive adoption is predicted by family structure, socioeconomic variables, and self-esteem. Age and gender model differences emerged.     

Cultural, Gender, and Socioeconomic Contexts in Therapeutic and Social Policy Work

The contention of this paper is that the context of social and therapeutic problems is critical to their resolution, and that many of them stem from historical and structural injustice. It focuses on the contextual issues of cultural, gender, and socioeconomic equity as providing important insights into authentic notions of social inclusion and well-being, and encourages therapists, service providers, researchers, and policy makers to take responsibility to ensure that these injustices are addressed, and become part of the public discourse about the sources and solutions of endemic social problems. Critique and deconstruction of institutional power in our public, private, and voluntary services is encouraged in a manner that honors diversity and enables sensitive therapy, other forms of service delivery and policy making that genuinely reflect the range of cultural, gender, and socioeconomic experiences of citizens.     

Relationships of Employment Status,Gender Role,Insult, and Gender with Use of Influence Tactics

Previous research indicates that men and womenuse different tactics to influence others. This paperexamines the worth of using personality andenvironmental variables to study phenomena that havebeen previously studied with gender as a variable.Study One examined the relationship between gender roleand choice of influence tactics for 31 male and 103female, mostly Caucasian college students. Study Two examined the role of traditional versusprofessional employment status on 104 female collegegraduates' choices of influence tactics. Consistent withthe hypothesis that gendered personality variables and environments would act in much the same wayas gender itself, students demonstrating masculinegender role characteristics and women employed intraditionally male settings reported a greaterlikelihood of using stereotypically male patterns ofinfluence. Students demonstrating feminine gender rolecharacteristics and women employed in traditionallyfemale settings reported a greater likelihood of using stereotypically female patterns of influence.The importance of studying personality and environmentalvariables relative to gender is discussed.     

Social Dominance Orientation,Gender, and Increasing Educational Exposure1

Using a large panel sample of undergraduates, we measured the social dominance orientation (SDO) scores of men and women once a year across a 4½‐year period. Employing repeated‐measures ANOVAs, we found that, even after controlling for the character of students' academic majors (hierarchy enhancing or hierarchy attenuating), males showed significantly higher SDO scores than did females across the entire college career. The data are discussed in terms of the invariance hypothesis within social dominance theory.     

Identity Status,Gender, and Social Comparison Among Young Adults

The aim of this study was to investigate identity status globally and across identity domains among young Swedish adult women and men. Also, potential differences in social comparison among identity statuses were evaluated. The results showed that most of the 124 participants (50% women, M_age 33.29 years) were assigned to an achieved global identity and had made identity-defining commitments across domains. Gender differences in identity status were found in the occupational and parenthood domains. In addition, differences in social comparison orientation were found only in the parenthood domain, whereas those assigned to moratorium scored higher in social comparison than did those assigned to foreclosure and diffusion. These results bring important knowledge to our understanding of identity during young adulthood.     

Social Learning,Self-Control,Gender, and Variety of Violent Delinquency

This study tested the role of social learning and self-control theories in the variety of violent delinquent behaviors engaged in by male and female adolescents (N = 833). Results of Tobit analyses indicated that neither theory was able to account for the gender gap. Low self-control was significantly associated with an increase in the variety of violent delinquency among females. Among male respondents, those who were more susceptible to peer pressure engaged in fewer types of violent delinquency. We conclude that theories must actively recognize the role of gender to better account for the differences in violent delinquent behavior.     

Influences of Social Expectations of Gender,Gender Stereotypes,and Situational Constraints on Children's Toy Choices

Children, whose ethnic/racial backgrounds (primarily caucasian) and household compositions (primarily two-parent homes) reflected local population statistics, were videotaped playing with toy dishes and tools. The amount of time spent with each toy was calculated to determine whether this varied as a function of children's perceptions of social expectations of gender, awareness of gender stereotypes, and situational constraints (no information, gender-typed information unrelated to the toys, gender-typed toy labels). In study 1, the toy choices of girls and boys with perceptions of having one or more familiar people who thought cross-gender-typed play was “bad,” were influenced by gender-typed toy labels. However, only boys with perceptions of having one or more people who thought cross-gender-typed play was “bad,” were somewhat influenced by gender-typed information unrelated to the toys. Furthermore, in study 2, boys' (but not girls') perceptions of having one or more people who thought cross-gender-typed play was “bad,” independent of an awareness of gender stereotypes predicted the amount of time boys spent with cross-gender toys. The discussion highlights the utility of measures of children's perceptions of others' social expectations of gender in gender research. Additionally, the discussion highlights the complex relationships between such perceptions, situational constraints, and different socialization that girls and boys experience in the domain of toy play.