Am I blue? Depressed mood and the consequences of self-focus for the interpretation and recall of ambiguous words

In two experiments, dysphoric and nondysphoric students first concentrated on either self-focused or other-focused phrases and then performed an ostensibly unrelated task involving the interpretation of homographs with both personal and impersonal meanings. In Experiment 1, they constructed sentences for the homographs; dysphoric students' sentences were more emotionally negative (although not more personal) in the self-focused condition than in the other-focused condition. In Experiment 2, they freely associated to the homographs, and the percentage of personal meanings reflected by the associations revealed an effect of self versus other focus that depended on mood group. Following free associations, they attempted to recall the homographs. Dysphoric students (but not nondysphoric students) recalled a greater percentage of personally interpreted homographs if they had focused on self than if they had focused on other matters. In general, these results suggest that ruminative or self-focused thinking by people in depressed moods transfers to novel ambiguous situations, encouraging more negative interpretations and better recall of personal interpretations.     

Involuntary autobiographical memories in dysphoric mood: a laboratory study

The frequency and characteristics of involuntary autobiographical memories were compared in 25 stable dysphoric and 28 non-dysphoric participants, using a new laboratory-based task (Schlagman & Kvavilashvili, 2008). Participants detected infrequent target stimuli (vertical lines) in a simple vigilance task and recorded any involuntary autobiographical memories that came to mind, mostly in response to irrelevant words presented on the screen. Dysphoric participants reported involuntary memories as frequently and as quickly as non-dysphoric participants and their memories were not repetitive intrusive memories of negative or traumatic events. Additional content analysis showed that dysphoric participants did not recall more memories of objectively negative events (e.g., accidents, illnesses, deaths) than non-dysphoric participants. However, significant group differences emerged in terms of a mood congruency effect whereby dysphoric participants rated their memories as more negative than non-dysphoric participants. Moreover, the proportion of negatively rated involuntary memories was related to lower mood ratings at the end of the session in the dysphoric but not in the non-dysphoric group. Finally, groups did not differ on several memory characteristics such as vividness, specificity (high in both groups) and rates of rehearsal (low in both groups). Theoretical and practical implications of these findings for research on depression and autobiographical memory are discussed.     

Involuntary autobiographical memories in dysphoric mood: A laboratory study

The frequency and characteristics of involuntary autobiographical memories were compared in 25 stable dysphoric and 28 non-dysphoric participants, using a new laboratory-based task (Schlagman & Kvavilashvili, 2008). Participants detected infrequent target stimuli (vertical lines) in a simple vigilance task and recorded any involuntary autobiographical memories that came to mind, mostly in response to irrelevant words presented on the screen. Dysphoric participants reported involuntary memories as frequently and as quickly as non-dysphoric participants and their memories were not repetitive intrusive memories of negative or traumatic events. Additional content analysis showed that dysphoric participants did not recall more memories of objectively negative events (e.g., accidents, illnesses, deaths) than non-dysphoric participants. However, significant group differences emerged in terms of a mood congruency effect whereby dysphoric participants rated their memories as more negative than non-dysphoric participants. Moreover, the proportion of negatively rated involuntary memories was related to lower mood ratings at the end of the session in the dysphoric but not in the non-dysphoric group. Finally, groups did not differ on several memory characteristics such as vividness, specificity (high in both groups) and rates of rehearsal (low in both groups). Theoretical and practical implications of these findings for research on depression and autobiographical memory are discussed.     

Developing a measure of interpretation bias for depressed mood: An ambiguous scenarios test

The tendency to interpret ambiguous everyday situations in a relatively negative manner (negative interpretation bias) is central to cognitive models of depression. Limited tools are available to measure this bias, either experimentally or in the clinic. This study aimed to develop a pragmatic interpretation bias measure using an ambiguous scenarios test relevant to depressed mood (the AST-D).¹ In Study 1, after a pilot phase (N = 53), the AST-D was presented via a web-based survey (N = 208). Participants imagined and rated each AST-D ambiguous scenario. As predicted, higher dysphoric mood was associated with lower pleasantness ratings (more negative bias), independent of mental imagery measures. In Study 2, self-report ratings were compared with objective ratings of participants’ imagined outcomes of the ambiguous scenarios (N = 41). Data were collected in the experimental context of a functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging scanner. Consistent with subjective bias scores, independent judges rated more sentences as negatively valenced for the high versus low dysphoric group. Overall, results suggest the potential utility of the AST-D in assessing interpretation bias associated with depressed mood.     

Effects of thematic structure on syntactic comprehension in aphasia

This study assessed aphasic subjects' sensitivity to the given-new structure within simple paragraphs and the extent to which narrative discourse is facilitative of syntactic processing in the absence of semantic constraints. Subjects were divided into four groups along the dimensions of comprehension level and fluency. Stimulus items consisted of reversible active and passive sentences that were presented in the following three conditions: isolation, at the end of paragraphs such that the given-new structure was respected, and at the end of paragraphs such that the given-new structure was violated. Fluency did not significantly influence performance but comprehension level did. The high-comprehension group presented no significant differences between contextual conditions. The low-comprehension group, however, favored both paragraph contexts over isolation with no difference occurring between contextual conditions. These results suggest that lower level aphasic subjects are able to utilize thematic, antecedent verbal information for comprehending sentences in connected discourse even when the discourse is not semantically predictive of the underlying meaning of these sentences. Whether the narrative respects or violates the given-new relationship may not be an important factor. The reasons for these findings are explored.     

Recollection deficits in dysphoric mood: An effect of schematic models and executive mode?

Depression and dysphoric mood states are often accompanied by quantitative or qualitative shifts in performance across a range of retention tasks. This study focuses on the recollection of both autobiographical events and word lists in dysphoric states. Recollection occurs when people are aware of some contextual detail allied to the encoding experience. This study establishes the presence of a recollection deficit in dysphoria in two distinct paradigms. In both autobiographical recall and in recognition memory, recollection in a dysphoric group was at lower levels than recollection in matched controls. The study examines the hypothesis that the extent of recollection is influenced by two factors: (1) the degree of differentiation of schematic mental models; and (2) the executive mode that predominates when memory tasks are carried out, with the latter assumed to be altered by rumination. The relationship between responses based on recollection and alternative mnemonic responses could be predicted by measures of these two factors. The results are discussed in terms of the Interacting Cognitive Subsystems model (Teasdale & Barnard, 1993) and the perspective it offers on the relationship between meaning systems and executive functions (Barnard, 1999).     

Weight gain and withdrawal symptoms after smoking cessation: a preventive intervention using d-fenfluramine

Directly measured food intake in 31 overweight female smokers to test whether (a) calorie and carbohydrate intakes increase after smoking cessation and (b) double-blind d-fenfluramine (30 mg), a serotonin-releasing drug, suppresses weight gain, overeating, and dysphoric mood associated with stopping smoking. Placebo-treated patients grew dysphoric after smoking withdrawal and ate 300 kcal/day more from 2 to 28 days after, showing a 3.5-lb weight gain. Fat and protein intakes did not change, but carbohydrate intake increased (30% to 40%). D-fenfluramine prevented postcessation dysphoria. Although drug-treated patients ate more carbohydrate snacks just after quitting, they returned to baseline by 4 weeks, showing a 1.8-lb weight loss. Agents that enhance brain serotonin-mediated neurotransmission may help prevent weight gain, overeating, and dysphoric mood after smoking withdrawal.     

Recollection deficits in dysphoric mood: an effect of schematic models and executive mode?

Depression and dysphoric mood states are often accompanied by quantitative or qualitative shifts in performance across a range of retention tasks. This study focuses on the recollection of both autobiographical events and word lists in dysphoric states. Recollection occurs when people are aware of some contextual detail allied to the encoding experience. This study establishes the presence of a recollection deficit in dysphoria in two distinct paradigms. In both autobiographical recall and in recognition memory, recollection in a dysphoric group was at lower levels than recollection in matched controls. The study examines the hypothesis that the extent of recollection is influenced by two factors: (1) the degree of differentiation of schematic mental models; and (2) the executive mode that predominates when memory tasks are carried out, with the latter assumed to be altered by rumination. The relationship between responses based on recollection and alternative mnemonic responses could be predicted by measures of these two factors. The results are discussed in terms of the Interacting Cognitive Subsystems model (Teasdale & Barnard, 1993) and the perspective it offers on the relationship between meaning systems and executive functions (Barnard, 1999).     

Revealing negative thinking in recovered major depression: a preliminary investigation

Previous research suggests that formerly dysphoric individuals engage in effortful strategies (e.g., thought suppression) that may mask underlying depressive thinking. The addition of a cognitive load, such as recalling a 6-digit number, which interferes with effortful mental control, reveals depressive thinking in formerly dysphoric individuals. This preliminary study tested whether this effect of cognitive load on revealing negative thinking generalizes to formerly clinically depressed patients. Currently depressed patients, recovered depressed patients and never-depressed patients unscrambled sentences that could form either positive or negative statements, after random allocation to either cognitive load or no cognitive load conditions. The number of negative statements unscrambled was used as an index of negative thinking. Without a load, recovered depressed patients did not differ from never-depressed controls: both groups completed fewer negative statements than currently depressed patients. However, the cognitive load increased negative statements in the recovered depressed group, making them resemble the currently depressed group more than the never-depressed group. These preliminary findings extend previous demonstrations of cognitive load unmasking negative thinking in dysphoric students to a clinical population, suggesting that formerly depressed patients utilize effortful strategies to minimize the report of negative thinking, which is undermined by the addition of a cognitive load.     

沉思和分心对负情绪和自传体记忆的影响

探讨在诱发了抑郁、焦虑、悲伤等负性情绪后,沉思和分心对正常成人的情绪主观报告、生理变化和自传体记忆的作用。64名被试被随机分为两组,用故事和电影短片分别诱发了负性和中性（控制组）两种情绪状态。然后进行随机分组,分别进行分心和沉思的反应任务。测量四组被试的情绪主观报告、生理变化以及多种形式和性质的自传体记忆。结果表明：（1）沉思和分心对这些负情绪的调节作用不显著;（2）沉思引起更多的负性记忆,正性复合指数更小,自传体记忆的具体性更弱。结论：沉思导致更多负性记忆,维持了概括性记忆,更有可能加重已经激活的负情绪     

Memory accessibility, mood regulation, and dysphoria: difficulties in repairing sad mood with happy memories?

Recent studies have suggested that mood-incongruency effects are due to mood-regulatory processes, in which people retrieve positive memories to repair negative moods. In Study 1, the authors investigated whether dysphoria influences the accessibility of autobiographical memories following a positive or a negative mood induction combined with subsequent rumination or distraction. The results showed a mood-repair effect for nondysphoric but not for dysphoric participants following rumination. In Study 2, participants were asked to either distract themselves or to recall positive autobiographical memories after a negative mood induction. Whereas nondysphoric participants' mood improved under both conditions, dysphoric participants' mood improved only after distraction. These results suggest that dysphoria is associated with a reduced ability to use mood-incongruent recall to repair sad moods.     

Inhibition of Internal Attention to Positive and Negative Representations in Dysphoria

We developed the Internal–External Attention‐Switching Task, which measures the ability to inhibit internal attention and the ability to remove inhibition of internal attention. The Internal–External Attention‐Switching Task was administered to a sample of dysphoric and non‐dysphoric undergraduate or graduate students (N = 44). Difficulty in both inhibition of internal attention to negative representation and removal of this inhibition were shown to be general. Importantly, however, dysphoric individuals could not maintain internal attention or remove inhibition of internal attention to positive representations as easily as non‐dysphoric individuals could. Therefore, reduced attention to positive representations in dysphoric individuals may enable maintenance of their depressive mood.     

Contextual influences in reading comprehension in aphasia.

Aphasic subjects' auditory comprehension of reversible passive sentences is facilitated by preceding predictive and nonpredictive narratives (Hough, Pierce, & Cannito, 1989, Brain and Language, 36, 325-334). The present study found that aphasic subjects also comprehended written reversible passive sentences significantly more accurately when they were preceded by either predictive or nonpredictive five-sentence narratives than when they were presented in isolation. Also tested was the contention that predictive narratives do not improve aphasic subjects' ability to process target sentences but simply allow these sentences to be ignored. This contention was not supported. The aphasic subjects did not comprehend predictive narratives presented without the subsequent target sentences more accurately than they comprehended the target sentences presented in isolation. For comprehension to be enhanced, both the contextual narratives and the target sentences must be present.     

Satisfaction in interpersonal interactions as a function of similarity in level of dysphoria

This study compared dysphoric and nondysphoric male and female undergraduates as they conversed with dysphoric or nondysphoric undergraduates of the same sex. Subjects rated their satisfaction with the conversation after each turn. The results showed that people in homogeneous dyads (i.e., both partners were dysphoric or both partners were nondysphoric) were more satisfied with the interaction, and their satisfaction increased as the conversation proceeded. People in mixed dyads were less satisfied, perceived each other as colder, and spoke about increasingly negative topics. Thus, in accord with other research showing that similarity leads to liking, the crucial determinant of interactional satisfaction was neither the mood of the subject nor the mood of the partner, but their similarity in mood.     

First onset versus recurrence of depression: differential processes of psychosocial risk.

Differential risk factors for the onset of depression were prospectively examined in a community-based sample of adolescents (N = 1,709), some of whom had a history of major depressive disorder (MDD; n = 286) and some of whom did not (n = 1,423). From the theories of J. Teasdale (1983, 1988) and R. Post (1992) concerning the etiology of initial versus recurrent episodes of depression, the authors hypothesized that (a) dysphoric mood and dysfunctional thinking styles would be correlated more highly among those with a previous history of MDD than among those without a history of MDD; (b) dysphoric mood or symptoms and dysfunctional thinking would be a stronger predictor of onset of recurrent episodes (n = 43) than of first onsets (n = 70); and (c) major life stress would be a stronger predictor of first onsets of MDD than of recurrent episodes. The results provide support for the 3 hypotheses and suggest that distinct processes are involved in the onset of first and recurrent episodes of MDD.     

Effects of dysphoria and induced negative mood on the processes underlying hindsight bias

Hindsight bias is the tendency to overestimate one’s prior knowledge of facts or events once the actual facts or events are known. Several theoretical frameworks suggest that affective states might influence hindsight bias. Nondysphoric participants (n?=?123, BDI?≤?13) in negative or neutral mood, and dysphoric participants (n?=?19, BDI?>?13) generated and recalled answers to difficult knowledge questions. All groups showed hindsight bias, that is, their recalled estimates were closer to the correct answer when this answer was shown at recall. Multinomial modelling revealed, however, that under dysphoria and induced negative mood different processes contributed to hindsight bias. Dysphoria, but not induced negative mood, was associated with a stronger reconstruction bias, compared with neutral mood. A recollection bias appeared in neutral, but neither in induced negative nor dysphoric mood. These findings highlight differences between the cognitive consequences of dysphoria and induced negative mood.     

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Naturalistic studies have reported contextual facilitation of oral reading in passage‐length materials, but inconsistent results have been obtained in studies of sentence‐long contexts. While studies of intrasentence contextual facilitation effects constitute conservative tests of top‐down reading theories, failure to observe such effects raises serious doubts concerning the scope of those theories. The present study examined both quantitative and qualitative aspects of children's oral reading of words in isolation and in sentence‐length contexts. Results indicated that, although sentence‐long context did not facilitate reading accuracy, children did appear to be exploiting contextual information in their reading of sentences, with a relatively high proportion of reading errors being contextually acceptable. Introspective data suggested that children may have adopted different reading strategies in the two context conditions, using a slower, bottom‐up strategy for words in isolation and a fluent, top‐down strategy for the sentences.     

Effects of contextual constraint on eye movements in reading: A further examination

The effect of contextual constraint on eye movements in reading was examined by asking subjects to read sentences that contained a target word that varied in contextual constraint; high-, medium-, or low-constraint target words were used. Subjects fixated low-constraint target words longer than they did either high- or medium-constraint target words. In addition, they skipped high-constraint words more than they did either medium- or low-constraint target words. The results further confirm that contextual constraint has a strong influence on eye movements during reading.     

The relationship between naturally occurring dysphoric moods,elaborative encoding,and recall performance

Abstract

An experiment was conducted to examine the effects of levels of naturally occurring dysphoria and elaborative encoding on recall. Previous research has indicated that the facilitative effects of elaborative encoding on recall are reduced by the induction of negative moods in laboratory settings. However, the effects of endogenous dysphoria on recall are less clear. In the present study, 82 subjects from a college population were categorised as dysphoria or nondysphoric on the basis of two self-report measures. They were then presented with sentences in both elaborated and nonelaborated form, and recall for target words embedded in the sentences was assessed. Results demonstrated that nondysphoric individuals benefited from elaborative encoding in recall performance, whereas dysphoric individuals did not. Results are discussed in terms of Ellis and Ashbrook's (1988) resource allocation model of depression.     

Systems of coping associated with dysphoria, anxiety and depressive illness: a multivariate profile perspective

As numerous coping strategies to deal with stressors can be used concurrently or sequentially, it may be productive to consider coping from a broad, systemic perspective. Using profile analysis and multivariate techniques, we demonstrated that coping profiles comprising multiple strategies distinguished between various mood states (dysphoria, anxiety, major depression, dysthymia and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)). Generally, affective disturbances were associated with increased levels of rumination, cognitive distraction and emotion-focused coping (emotional expression, other-blame, self-blame, emotional containment and passive resignation) coupled with diminished problem solving and social support seeking. These coping profiles, however, varied as a function of anxiety vs. dysphoria, and severity of dysphoric symptoms, although the profile of dysphoric individuals was similar to that of clinically diagnosed dysthymic and major depressive patients. While coping profiles were generally stable over time (6 months), improvement or deterioration of mood was accompanied by corresponding alterations of coping profiles. Importantly, coping profile was not simply a correlate of dysphoric mood, but was also found to be an antecedent condition that favored the evolution of more severe affective problems. It is suggested that a multidimensional approach may prove useful in understanding coping as a dynamic system, and may have implications for clinical intervention.