Cognitive vulnerability to depression during middle childhood: Stability and associations with maternal affective styles and parental depression

Theories of cognitive vulnerability to depression (CVD) imply that CVD is early-emerging and trait-like; however, little longitudinal work has tested this premise in middle childhood, or examined theoretically relevant predictors of child CVD. We examined test–retest correlations of self-referent encoding task performance and self-reported attributional styles and their associations with parental characteristics in 205 seven-year-olds. At baseline, child CVD was assessed, structured clinical interviews were conducted with parents, and ratings of observed maternal affective styles were made. Children’s CVD was re-assessed approximately one and two years later. Both measures of children’s CVD were prospectively and concurrently associated with children’s depressive symptoms and showed modest stability. Multilevel modeling indicated that maternal criticism and paternal depression were related to children’s CVD. Findings indicate that even early-emerging CVD is a valid marker of children’s depression risk.     

Cognitive and serotonergic vulnerability to depression: convergent findings

Cognitive reactivity (CR) is a psychological vulnerability marker of depression, whereas response to acute tryptophan depletion (ATD; a serotonergic challenge procedure) is a biological vulnerability marker. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between these markers. Thirty-nine remitted depressed patients participated in 2 ATD sessions in a double-blind crossover design. CR, assessed prior to the ATD sessions, predicted depressive response to high-dose ATD. CR also diminished the effects of 2 known predictors of ATD response: gender and residual symptoms. Neuroticism and behavioral inhibition were unrelated to ATD response. CR is associated with an increased sensitivity to reductions of serotonin concentrations. These findings present a small step toward unifying cognitive and neurobiological theories of depression.     

Cognitive vulnerability to depression: a taxometric analysis

Although there is increasing support for the hypothesis that negative cognitive styles contribute vulnerability to depression, it remains unclear how best to conceptualize the heterogeneity in cognitive vulnerability to depression. Specifically, does this heterogeneity reflect quantitative or qualitative differences among individuals? The goal of this study was to address this question by examining whether the underlying structure of cognitive vulnerability to depression is best conceptualized as dimensional or categorical. Taxometric analyses provided consistent support for the dimensional nature of negative cognitive styles. It appears, therefore, that cognitive vulnerability to depression is best conceptualized as a dimensional construct, present to a greater or lesser extent in all individuals. Despite this, the strength of the relationship between negative cognitive styles and depressive symptoms does appear to vary as a function of where along the cognitive style continuum one falls.     

Cognitive vulnerability to depression in individuals with borderline personality disorder

The goal of the current study was to examine whether individuals with comorbid Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) exhibit greater severity of depressive symptoms than (1) individuals with MDD without BPD and (2) individuals with neither MDD nor BPD. One hundred and forty-one individuals participated in a semi-structured clinical interview assessing MDD and BPD. They also completed measures assessing depressive symptoms, depressogenic attributional style, hopelessness, self-esteem, rumination, and dysfunctional attitudes. In line with hypotheses, individuals with BPD and MDD exhibited higher levels of depressive symptoms and cognitive vulnerability than individuals in the other two groups. In addition, after controlling for the effects of cognitive vulnerability, the effect of group membership on depressive symptoms was reduced, suggesting that the increased severity of depressive symptoms experienced by those with BPD is partially due to their possessing higher levels of cognitive vulnerability to depression.     

Cognitive vulnerability to depression in never depressed subjects

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether dysfunctional cognitions could be measured in never-depressed individuals after a sad mood prime, and if these dysfunctional cognitions would predict future depression. Subjects were first screened for current or past depression. Never-depressed subjects were randomly assigned to a prime or no-prime condition and completed the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale. After one month, subjects completed the Beck Depression Inventory. The mood induction was successful in producing a sad mood, but had no effect on accessibility of dysfunctional cognition. Dysfunctional cognitions did predict depressive symptoms one month later, for the women in the sample, but not the men. These results were actually stronger for the unprimed subjects. The results provide some support for the cognitive diathesis-stress model, and suggest that cognitive vulnerability to depression may exist prior to a clinically significant depressive episode. However, mood priming does not appear to be a useful strategy with never-depressed subjects.     

Cognitive vulnerability to depression: The role of thought suppression and attitude certainty

Previous research indicates that dysfunctional attitudes wax and wane with shifts in mood, suggesting that they are more likely the result than the cause of depression. The present research examined the possibility that attitudinal precursors to depression exist but are difficult to detect because at-risk individuals are trying to suppress dysfunctional thinking. However, the lingering maladaptive beliefs should be reflected in attitude uncertainty. To test this idea, participants completed a measure of chronic thought suppression and the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale that was amended to include certainty ratings. Participants also reported current and past experiences with depression. The results indicated that although formerly depressed individuals—who are at high risk for relapse—reported relatively adaptive attitudes, they were more uncertain about those beliefs than were their never-depressed counterparts. Moreover, this greater uncertainty was associated with high levels of thought suppression that, in turn, were related to previous depression.     

Cognitive avoidance of intrusive memories: recall vantage perspective and associations with depression

Although recent research demonstrates that intrusive memories represent an overlapping cognitive feature of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), there is still a general paucity of research investigating the prevalence and maintenance of intrusive memories in depression. The current study investigated the association between a range of cognitive avoidant mechanisms that characterize PTSD samples (i.e., suppression, rumination, emotional detachment, and an observer vantage perspective) and intrusive memories of negative autobiographical events in relation to dysphoria. Hypotheses were based on the proposition that employment of these cognitive mechanisms would hinder the emotional processing of the negative event, thus contributing to the maintenance of intrusions. Results supported an association between negative intrusive memories, dysphoria, and avoidant mechanisms. Significant differences were also found between field and observer memories and measures of emotional detachment and rumination. Implications relating to intrusive memory maintenance and treatment approaches are discussed.     

Childhood abuse and vulnerability to depression: Cognitive scars in otherwise healthy young adults

Models of depression vulnerability posit that negative early experiences, such as exposure to childhood abuse (CA), increase vulnerability to depression later in life. Though most victims of CA do not go on to develop depression, the question remains as to whether these individuals retain cognitive ‘scars’ that may contribute to depression vulnerability. The present study examined the relationship between self-reported, retrospective CA and cognitive vulnerability to depression in a carefully selected sample of young adults without current or past psychopathology. We measured cognitive vulnerability with both a self-report questionnaire, the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS), and a measure of information processing bias, the Scrambled Sentences Test (SST). Self-reported severity of CA was associated with increased cognitive vulnerability to depression on both the DAS and SST. Vulnerability to depression as measured by the SST, but not by the DAS, prospectively predicted increases in depressive symptoms over a 6-month period. Scores on the SST also interacted with CA to predict increases in depressive symptoms. These findings demonstrate the pernicious effects of CA even in those without current or past psychopathology.     

Cognitive vulnerability in children at risk for depression

Cognitive, developmental, and psychodynamic theories all hypothesize that negative self-concepts acquired in childhood may induce vulnerability to depression. Children at risk because of maternal major affective disorder, compared with children of medically ill and normal mothers, were examined for evidence of negative cognitions about themselves, and were found to have more negative self-concept, less positive self-schemas, and more negative attributional style. It was further predicted that negative cognitions about the self would be related to maternal depression and chronic stress, and to the quality of perceived and actual interactions with the mother. In general, the predicted associations were obtained, supporting speculations about how maternal affective disorder is associated with stress and with relatively negative and unsupportive relationships with children that in turn diminish children's self-regard.This research was supported by a William T. Grant Foundation award to Dr. Hammen and a Veterans Administration Merit Award to Dr. Hiroto.     

Cognitive vulnerability to depression: a comparison of the weakest link, keystone and additive models

Multiple theories of cognitive vulnerability to depression have been proposed, each focusing on different aspects of negative cognition and utilising different measures of risk. Various methods of integrating such multiple indices of risk have been examined in the literature, and each demonstrates some promise. Yet little is known about the interrelations among these methods, or their incremental validity in predicting changes in depression. The present study compared three integrative models of cognitive vulnerability: the additive, weakest link, and keystone models. Support was found for each model as predictive of depression over time, but only the weakest link model demonstrated incremental utility in predicting changes in depression over the other models. We also explore the correlation between these models and each model's unique contribution to predicting onset of depressive symptoms.     

Cognitive vulnerability to depression: A comparison of the weakest link,keystone and additive models

Multiple theories of cognitive vulnerability to depression have been proposed, each focusing on different aspects of negative cognition and utilising different measures of risk. Various methods of integrating such multiple indices of risk have been examined in the literature, and each demonstrates some promise. Yet little is known about the interrelations among these methods, or their incremental validity in predicting changes in depression. The present study compared three integrative models of cognitive vulnerability: the additive, weakest link, and keystone models. Support was found for each model as predictive of depression over time, but only the weakest link model demonstrated incremental utility in predicting changes in depression over the other models. We also explore the correlation between these models and each model's unique contribution to predicting onset of depressive symptoms.     

Cognitive vulnerability to depression, rumination, hopelessness, and suicidal ideation: multiple pathways to self-injurious thinking

In order to advance the detection and prevention of suicide, recent research has focused on predictors of suicidal ideation and behavior such as negative cognitive styles, dysfunctional attitudes, hopelessness, and rumination. In this study the relationships among these risk factors in the context of the Attention Mediated Hopelessness (AMH) theory of depression are examined. One hundred and twenty-seven undergraduates in the Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression (CVD) project were followed for 2.5 years. The CVD project followed initially nondepressed freshmen, at either high or low cognitive risk for depression, in order to predict onsets and recurrences of depressive disorders. The presence and duration of suicidal ideation were predicted prospectively by rumination and hopelessness, and hopelessness partially mediated the relationship between rumination and ideation and fully mediated the association between rumination and duration of suicidality. Further, rumination mediated the relationship between cognitive vulnerability and suicidal ideation.     

Adult attachment style and vulnerability to depression

The present study examined the role of adult attachment styles in differentiating ‘depressed’ and ‘non-depressed’ college students, and the association between attachment styles and the depressive personality vulnerabilities, sociotropy and autonomy. High scores on the fearful and, to a lesser extent, preoccupied attachment scales were associated with higher levels of depression, highlighting negative self-representation as a key factor in depression. While the sociotropy vulnerability construct correlated exclusively with the preoccupied attachment scale, correlations for the autonomy construct were more complex: as predicted, fearful attachment correlated with all three autonomy subscales while dismissive attachment correlated with the defensive-separation and control subscales, but not with the self-criticism subscale. With an emphasis on negative self-representation, preoccupied attachment also correlated with the self-criticism subscale. The results suggest that fearful attachment is consistent with autonomous vulnerability and preoccupied attachment with sociotropic vulnerability. Self-criticism, a component of both fearful and preoccupied attachment, is highlighted as a strong depressive vulnerability. Dismissive attachment, not involving the self-critical component, does not appear to be associated with depressive predisposition, despite involving self-reliance and avoidance of intimacy.     

Longitudinal stability of temperamental exuberance and social-emotional outcomes in early childhood

The goals of the current study were to investigate the stability of temperamental exuberance across infancy and toddlerhood and to examine the associations between exuberance and social-emotional outcomes in early childhood. The sample consisted of 291 4-month-olds followed at 9, 24, and 36 months and again at 5 years of age. Behavioral measures of exuberance were collected at 9, 24, and 36 months. At 36 months, frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry was assessed. At 5 years, maternal reports of temperament and behavior problems were collected, as were observational measures of social behavior during an interaction with an unfamiliar peer in the laboratory. Latent profile analysis revealed a high, stable exuberance profile that was associated with greater ratings of 5-year externalizing behavior and surgency, as well as observed disruptive behavior and social competence with unfamiliar peers. These associations were particularly true for children who displayed left frontal EEG asymmetry. Multiple factors supported an approach bias for exuberant temperament but did not differentiate between adaptive and maladaptive social-emotional outcomes at 5 years of age.     

Women and vulnerability to depression: some personality and clinical factors

The purpose of this study is to explore the role of sex differences and personality in vulnerability to depression. Sex differences in personality and some clinical variables are described. We also assess the value of the variables that revealed significant sex differences as predictors of vulnerability to depression. In a group of adult participants (N = 112), 50% males and 50% females (mean age = 41.30; SD = 15.09; range 17-67), we studied sex differences in the three-factor personality model, using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Form A (EPQ-A; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975), and in the Five-Factor Personality Model, with the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI; Costa & McCrae, 1985). The following clinical scales were used: the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979), the Schizotypy Questionnaire (STQ; Claridge & Broks, 1984; Spanish version, Carrillo & Rojo, 1999), the THARL Scales (Dua, 1989, 1990; Spanish version, Dua & Carrillo, 1994) and the Adjustment Inventory (Bell, 1937; Spanish version, Cerdá, 1980). Subsequently, simple linear regression analysis, with BDI scores as criterion, were performed to estimate the value of the variables as predictors of vulnerability to depression. The results indicate that a series of personality variables cause women to be more vulnerable to depression than men and that these variables could be explained by a negative emotion main factor. Results are discussed within the framework of the psychological behaviorism theory of depression.     

Motivation and goal orientation in vulnerability to depression

Depression may be related to motivational systems that govern approach and avoidance behaviour such as temperament and goal orientation. Using a remitted depression design we found that previously depressed and never-depressed individuals did not differ on number of approach goals generated, degree of goal commitment or extent of planning to reach goals. However, previously depressed individuals generated more avoidance goals indicating that the tendency to set avoidance goals may be a trait-like vulnerability to depression. Previously depressed individuals also reported higher activation of the behavioural approach system (BAS) raising the possibility that this system is energising approach behaviour in the service of avoiding aversive consequences.     

Motivation and goal orientation in vulnerability to depression

Depression may be related to motivational systems that govern approach and avoidance behaviour such as temperament and goal orientation. Using a remitted depression design we found that previously depressed and never-depressed individuals did not differ on number of approach goals generated, degree of goal commitment or extent of planning to reach goals. However, previously depressed individuals generated more avoidance goals indicating that the tendency to set avoidance goals may be a trait-like vulnerability to depression. Previously depressed individuals also reported higher activation of the behavioural approach system (BAS) raising the possibility that this system is energising approach behaviour in the service of avoiding aversive consequences.     

Factors in the self-deception questionnaire: associations with depression

Disagreement presently exists over whether depressed or nondepressed persons exercise more cognitive distortion on material about the self. A negative correlation between the Self-Deception Questionnaire (SDQ, Sackeim & Gur, 1978, 1979) and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI, Beck, 1967) has been cited as evidence that it is the nondepressed individuals who exercise more distortion (Sackeim, 1983). This negative correlation was replicated, and the SDQ was factor analyzed to determine which factors might account for the correlation with depression. The three largest factors, identified by content themes of relationships with parents, emotionality, and denial of tabooed activities, correlated reliably with the BDI. Discussion focused on whether these correlations reflect differences in self-deception that are associated with depression or differences in veridical responding between depressed and nondepressed subjects on those items in the SDQ. Suggestions for future research and possible therapeutic implications are also discussed.     

Maternal depressive symptoms and child temperament: Longitudinal associations with executive functioning

The present study investigated the contributions of maternal depressive symptoms and child temperament to youths' executive functioning (EF) across an 18-year longitudinal study. The primary hypothesis proposed that the association between youths' exposure to early maternal depressive symptoms (ages 3 & 5) and their EF (age 18) would be moderated by temperament in middle childhood (ages 8 & 10). Temperament was a significant moderator of the association between early maternal depressive symptoms and youth EF. Positive child temperament (high effortful control, EC, and low negative affectivity, NA) was associated with higher EF when maternal depressive symptoms during early childhood were low. In contrast, elevated maternal depressive symptoms overrode any associations between child temperament and later EF. Parallel analyses examining the interaction between child temperament and maternal depressive symptoms during middle childhood (controlling for earlier maternal depressive symptoms) revealed a different pattern of results. Clinical implications for prevention/intervention work on EF are discussed.