Reduced positive future-thinking in depression: Cognitive and affective factors

A pessimistic view of the future is an important feature of depressive thinking, and appears to be influenced at least as strongly by reduced positive expectancies as it is by increased negative expectancies. The present study examined whether reduced positive future-thinking in depression could be accounted for by a reduced capacity to anticipate experiencing pleasure. Depressed and nondepressed participants were asked to generate positive future expectancies using a future-thinking task, and their capacity to anticipate experiencing pleasure in such events was also assessed. Depressed participants provided fewer anticipated positive experiences, a finding which was not accountable for by their reduced pleasure ratings. This reduced positive anticipation was related to levels of depression but not to levels of anxiety. The results are consistent with the view that the lack of anticipated positive experiences in depression arises from a difficulty in accessing mental representations of such experiences.     

Prediction of symptoms of emotional distress by mood regulation expectancies and affective traits

Three studies examined negative mood regulation expectancies (NMRE) and affective traits as independent predictors of self‐reported symptoms of emotional distress. NMRE represent individuals' beliefs that they can alleviate unpleasant emotional states. Stronger NMRE are associated with more adaptive coping, more positive cognition during negative moods, more effective responses under stress and less emotional distress. Affective traits represent long‐term tendencies toward particular affective experiences; they confer risk for specific symptoms of emotional distress. In Study 1, NMRE, trait negative affect (TNA) and trait positive affect (TPA) were all independently associated with depression among students and staff of a German university. In Study 2, in prospective analyses among U.S. college students traits exhibited hypothesised relationships with anxiety and depressive symptoms, and NMRE uniquely predicted anhedonic depression. Study 3 revealed independent prediction of change in symptoms over time by NMRE among U.S. college students, whereas traits were not associated with change in distress, anxiety and depression symptoms. Results suggest independent roles for NMRE and traits in the development of depression and anxiety symptoms and highlight the importance of NMRE as a potential target of therapeutic intervention in the process of symptom change.     

Reactive and self-regulatory dimensions of temperament: Interactive relations with symptoms of general distress and anhedonia

Converging evidence indicates that shared temperamental diatheses partly underlie the covariance between anxiety and depression. Although developmental psychopathology research suggests that self-regulatory temperament (e.g., effortful control or EC) mitigates reactive risks associated with negative affectivity (NA) and positive affectivity (PA), and their respective counterparts, behavioral inhibition- and activation sensitivity (BIS and BAS), no studies have established EC’s protective effects in adulthood. This study examined concurrent relations between temperament and distress symptoms shared by anxiety and depression, and anhedonic symptoms unique to depression, in young adults. Anticipated two- and three-way interactions emerged supporting EC’s moderating effect between reactive temperament (i.e., high BIS and low BAS) and both symptom dimensions. However, no interactive relations emerged between symptoms and NA, PA, and EC.     

Effects of written emotional expression: the role of positive expectancies.

OBJECTIVE: Writing in an emotional way about stressful or traumatic experiences has beneficial effects on emotional well-being and physical health. Yet the mechanisms that underlie these effects still need to be explored. Integrating research on the effects of positive expectancies, the authors suggest that positive effects of written emotional expression may, in part, depend on expectancies induced by writing about emotional experiences. DESIGN: Two studies were conducted to test this hypothesis. In both studies, participants wrote about either an upsetting event or trivial issues. After the writing period, participants rated their expectancies that the writing intervention would improve (or impair) their emotional well-being over time. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Study 1 assessed the emotional impact of an upsetting event, whereas Study 2 assessed subjective reports of physical symptoms. In both studies, outcome variables were collected both before and 6 weeks after the writing intervention. RESULTS: The results showed that (a) writing about upsetting experiences induced higher positive expectancies than writing about trivial issues and (b) expectancies associated with written emotional expression were related to a reduction in the emotional impact of an upsetting event (Study 1) and to a reduction in physical symptoms (Study 2). CONCLUSIONS: There may be 2 alternative ways to render written emotional expression effective in reducing negative emotions: (a) by rendering an emotional experience more meaningful and (b) by inducing positive affect regulation expectancies.     

A reduction in positive self-judgment bias is uniquely related to the anhedonic symptoms of depression

Identifying patterns of biased cognitive processing specific to depression has proved difficult. The tripartite model of mood disorders [Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 316-336] suggests that a clearer processing ‘blueprint’ may emerge if depression is viewed dimensionally rather than categorically and by focusing on variations in the degree of positive, rather than negative, processing bias. To investigate this possibility, the present study examined the extent to which a reduced positive self-judgment bias previously found in depressed individuals relates to depression-specific anhedonic symptoms. Sixty participants with varying levels of anxiety and depression symptoms evaluated their own performance on a working memory task in the absence of external feedback. Overall, participants showed a positive self-judgment bias, overestimating the number of trials they had performed correctly relative to objective criteria. Consistent with the tripartite framework, the extent of this positive self-judgment bias was significantly and uniquely related to depression-specific symptoms, with the positive bias reducing as anhedonia severity increased across three different symptom measures.     

Self appraisal and behavioural activation in the prediction of hypomanic personality and depressive symptoms

Hypomanic personality is characterised by increased positive mood and energy but also more depression and greater risk of bipolar disorder. It is linked with positive self-appraisals for hypomania-relevant events and Behavioural Activation System (BAS) sensitivity such that hypomanic individuals tend preferentially towards goal-related activities. This study investigated relationships between positive and negative self-appraisal and BAS functioning and hypomanic personality and depressive symptoms. Participants (N = 231) completed measures of hypomanic personality, mood symptoms, dysfunctional attitudes, self-appraisal and behavioural activation/inhibition.Positive but not negative self-appraisal contributed to prediction of hypomanic personality as did higher BAS fun seeking and lower Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) scores. Conversely, negative self-appraisal was positively predictive of current depressive mood, whilst BAS reward responsiveness was negatively predictive. There are specific relationships between positive and negative appraisal styles and hypomanic personality and depressive mood, respectively. The findings of complimentary contributions from appraisal style, BAS and BIS to prediction of hypomanic personality are relevant to developing a better understanding of risk factors for bipolar disorder.     

Depressive symptoms interfere with post-rehabilitation exercise: Outcome expectancies and experience as mediators

The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between depressive symptoms and physical exercise by unveiling how outcome expectancies regarding exercise and positive exercise experience could mediate between depressive symptoms and exercise. A longitudinal study included 178 cardiac and orthopedic rehabilitation patients in Germany. Patients responded to psychometric scales at two points in time with a six-week interval, assessing depressive symptoms (Time 1), outcome expectancies regarding exercise (Time 1), exercise experiences (Time 2), and exercise behavior (Times 1 and 2). Depressive symptoms were negatively related to physical exercise (r?=-?0.18), to positive outcome expectancies (r?=-?0.23), and to positive exercise experiences (r?=-?0.26). In a multiple-step mediation model, expectancies and experiences mediated between depressive symptoms and exercise. In total, 15% of the exercise variance was accounted for. Outcome expectancies and a lack of positive experience seem to partly explain why depressed individuals are less likely to exercise.     

Mediational Pathways Through Which Positive and Negative Emotionality Contribute to Anhedonic Symptoms of Depression: A Prospective Study of Adolescents

This study takes a developmental psychopathological approach to examine mechanisms through which baseline levels of positive emotionality (PE) and negative emotionality (NE) prospectively predict increases in anhedonic depressive symptoms in a community sample of 350 adolescents (6th–10th graders). Dependent stressors mediated the relationship between baseline levels of NE and anhedonic depressive symptoms after controlling for initial symptoms. Supportive relationships mediated the relationship between baseline levels of PE and anhedonic depressive symptoms, after controlling for baseline symptoms. In addition, NE X PE interacted to predict later anhedonic depressive symptoms, such that adolescents with low levels of PE and high levels of NE experienced the greatest increase in anhedonic depressive symptoms. Last, supportive relationships interacted with baseline PE to predict prospective changes in anhedonic depressive symptoms, such that adolescents with low PE and low supportive relationships experienced the greatest increase in anhedonic depressive symptoms. Results are discussed in terms of current theoretical models of the link between temperament and depression. This work was supported, in part, by NIMH grants R03-MH 066845 and 1R01HD054736-01A1 to Benjamin L. Hankin.     

Mood regulation expectancies, affect intensity, dispositional coping, and depressive symptoms: A conceptual analysis and empirical reanalysis

In a recent article, Flett, Blankstein and Obertinsky (1996, Personality and Individual Differences, 20, 221–228) examined cross-sectional relations between affect intensity, generalized expectancies for negative mood regulation (NMR expectancies), coping dispositions, and depression in a sample of 153 women. However, they did not report partial correlations of affect intensity and NMR expectancies, independent of each other, with coping and depression. Such information is needed for development of models of the coping process which integrate the roles of temperament variables, such as affect intensity, and cognitive-social learning person variables, such as NMR expectancies. Reanalysis of Flett etal.'s correlation matrix revealed that affect intensity and NMR expectancies were each independently associated with distinct coping dispositions, but that only NMR expectancies were independently associated with depressive symptoms.     

Modeling the relations of attributional style, expectancies, and depression

Structural modeling techniques were used to assess relations of attributional style, expectancies, and depression. According to an initial theoretical model, attributions are directly related to expectancies, and expectancies are directly related to depression, but attributions are only indirectly related to depression by means of their relation to expectancies. The results of Study 1 indicated that this model was flawed in 2 respects: (a) Attributions for positive and negative events did not form a single latent variable, and (b) attributions for negative events both were indirectly related to depression by means of expectancies and were directly related to depression. Attributions for positive events only were indirectly related to depression by means of expectancies. The model derived in Study 1 was replicated in Study 2. Discussion centers on the interpretation of this modified model and on issues in the measurement of attributional style.     

Understanding perfectionism and depression in an adult clinical population: Is outcome expectancy relevant to psychological functioning?

Perfectionism is a personality trait defined by high standards of performance, which has been identified as a risk factor for major depressive disorder (MDD). The present study examined if outcome expectancy involved in perfectionism differs for individuals with depression compared to non-depressed controls, and how outcome expectancy relates to depression symptoms. This study included 49 depressed and 42 non-depressed participants. Perfectionism and depression severity were measured via self-report instruments. This study is the first to provide preliminary evidence that outcome expectancies involved in perfectionism may be related to psychological functioning in depression. Individuals with depression demonstrated higher negative and lower positive outcome expectancies associated with perfectionism compared to non-depressed participants. Perfectionism outcome expectancies are also related to depression severity and symptoms. Future research should prospectively investigate relationships of outcome expectancy involved in perfectionism in individuals at risk for depression.     

Exploring Behavioral Activation and Inhibition Sensitivities Among College Students at Risk for Bipolar Spectrum Symptomatology

We explored cross-sectionally the roles in bipolar spectrum symptomatology of two broad motivational systems that are thought to control levels of responsiveness to cues of threat and reward, the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioral Activation System (BAS). Undergraduate students (n = 357) completed questionnaires regarding (a) bipolar spectrum disorders [the General Behavior Inventory (GBI), a well-established clinical screening measure], (b) current depression and mania symptoms (the Internal State Scale; ISS), and (c) BIS/BAS sensitivities (the BIS/BAS scales). Validated cutoff scores on the GBI were used to identify individuals at risk for a mood disorder. It was hypothesized that, among at-risk respondents, high BAS and low BIS levels would be associated with high current mania ratings, whereas low BAS and high BIS would be associated with high current depression ratings. Multiple regression analyses indicated that, among at-risk individuals (n = 63), BAS accounted for 27% of current mania symptoms but BIS did not contribute. For these individuals, BAS and BIS were both significant and together accounted for 44% of current depressive symptoms.     

Coping and physical health outcomes: an overview

The aim of the present study was to investigate longitudinally the sensitivity of optimistic beliefs (positive outcome expectancies, efficacy expectancies, and optimistic bias) to disease-related stress (measured by disease duration, depressive symptoms, physical symptoms, physical impairment, and life-events) in Type 1 diabetes (n = 90) and multiple sclerosis (n = 90). First, we examined whether chronically ill patients were less optimistic than a healthy control group (n = 60), which showed that patients reported lower levels of optimistic bias but similar levels of the two other optimistic beliefs. Next, we analyzed the stability of the three types of optimistic beliefs across time (one year) for both disease groups, which demonstrated that optimistic bias in MS patients decreased. Finally, the impact of disease-related stressors on optimistic beliefs during a one-year period was determined, showing that all three optimistic beliefs decreased when patients reported depressive symptoms. Together, these findings show that positive outcome expectancies and efficacy expectancies were unaffected by being ill and fairly stable unless patients reported depressive symptoms while optimistic bias appeared to decrease as a result of being ill. Results are discussed in terms of the role of control and depression in optimistic bias.     

An Exploratory Study About the Buffering Effect of Gratitude on the Relationship Between Neuroticism and Anhedonic Depression

This study explored the interactive and independent effects of gratitude and neuroticism on anhedonic depression. The tripartite theory of affect deems blunted positive affect to be tantamount to anhedonia (Clark and Watson in J Abnorm Psychol 100:316–336, 1991); hence, gratitude as a positive affective trait was posited to be related to anhedonic depression. A sample of 493 undergraduate students completed measures of the variables. Hierarchical regression showed that even though gratitude did not appear to moderate the relationship between neuroticism and anhedonic depression, it had a significant main effect on the outcome such that those who had higher gratitude scores exhibited lower levels of anhedonic depression even after controlling for the effects of both positive and negative affect. Implications of the findings regarding gratitude’s utility as a resiliency factor against anhedonic depression as well as its potential to buffer against the effects of many risk factors other than neuroticism are discussed. Researchers and mental health practitioners are encouraged to explore the nature of gratitude as a possible resource of individuals at risk for developing psychopathology, as there may be multiple avenues through which gratitude could be fostered in psychotherapy and in everyday life.     

Personality traits,gender differences and symptoms of anhedonia: What does the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) measure in nonclinical settings?

In healthy populations men report more depressive symptoms than women when depression is measured by the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). This study aims to investigate the role of neuroticism and extroversion in symptom reporting by men and women and whether anhedonia can explain these reversed gender differences in depression observed when using HADS. HADS, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO FFI) were administered twice to a sample of university students. Number of subjects at T1 was 372 and 160 at T2, measured two months apart. Men had a higher average score on depressive symptoms measured by HADS‐D compared to women (p = 0.029). Women scored higher than men on HADS‐A (p = 0.012), neuroticism (p < 0.001) and PANAS‐negative affect (p < 0.029). No significant gender differences were observed in extroversion and positive affect. Test‐retest stabilities on HADS‐A and HADS‐D were high. Neuroticism predicted HADS‐A at Time 2. Gender, extroversion, and neuroticism predicted HADS‐D at Time 2. The anhedonic content in HADS may be a plausible explanation of reversed gender differences in the HADS depression scale. HADS‐D represents a specific anhedonic subtype of depression where symptom reporting reflects dispositional tendencies related specifically to extroversion.     

Examining the role of positive and negative metacognitive beliefs in depression

Many psychological models have been developed to explain the development and maintenance of depression. The most widely evaluated model is the cognitive model of depression, and it is against this model that emerging models should be compared. Accordingly, this cross‐sectional study examined whether metacognitive beliefs, as specified in the metacognitive model of depression, would explain additional variance in depressive symptoms over dysfunctional attitudes; the core feature of the cognitive model. Moreover, mediational relationships between metacognitive beliefs, rumination, and depressive symptoms, predicted by the metacognitive model were also explored, whilst controlling for dysfunctional attitudes. A sample of 715 students completed self‐report questionnaires measuring depressive symptoms, rumination, dysfunctional attitudes, and metacognitive beliefs. Regression analyses showed that metacognitive beliefs made a significant statistical contribution to depressive symptoms, after controlling for age, gender, rumination and dysfunctional attitudes. Furthermore, as predicted by the metacognitive model, the relationship between positive metacognitive beliefs and depressive symptoms was fully mediated by rumination, whilst the relationship between negative metacognitive beliefs about uncontrollability and danger and depressive symptoms was partially mediated by rumination. The results provide further empirical support for the metacognitive model of depression and indicate that positive and negative metacognitive beliefs play an integral role in the maintenance of depressive symptoms.     

When positive and negative expectancies disrupt performance: regulatory focus as a catalyst

The present research investigates the impact of negative and positive stereotypic expectancies on cognitive test performance. A theoretical framework that relates expectancy effects to self‐regulatory processes as postulated by Regulatory Focus Theory (RFT) is presented. Building on the differential sensitivity hypothesis proposed in this theoretical model, we argue that when self‐regulation in a prevention focus is activated individuals are particularly sensitive with regard to negative cues and therefore negative expectancies are likely to result in poor test performance due to an apprehension about meeting minimal goal standards. Conversely, when self‐regulation is guided by a promotion focus individuals are particularly sensitive with regard to positive cues and hence likely to show impaired performance when confronted with positive expectancies due to an apprehension about meeting maximal goal standards. The results of four experiments, relying on both situational and chronic regulatory focus, support these assumptions. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cognitive reappraisal and secondary control coping: associations with working memory,positive and negative affect,and symptoms of anxiety/depression

Abstract

The current study examined the relations of measures of cognitive reappraisal and secondary control coping with working memory abilities, positive and negative affect, and symptoms of anxiety and depression in young adults (N=124). Results indicate significant relations between working memory abilities and reports of secondary control coping and between reports of secondary control coping and cognitive reappraisal. Associations were also found between measures of secondary control coping and cognitive reappraisal and positive and negative affect and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Further, the findings suggest that reports of cognitive reappraisal may be more strongly predictive of positive affect whereas secondary control coping may be more strongly predictive of negative affect and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Overall, the results suggest that current measures of secondary control coping and cognitive reappraisal capture related but distinct constructs and suggest that the assessment of working memory may be more strongly related to secondary control coping in predicting individual differences in distress.     

The impact of valence framing on response expectancies of side effects and subsequent experiences: a randomised controlled trial

Abstract

Objective: Pre-treatment side effect expectancies often influence subsequent experiences; however, expectancy-based reduction strategies are lacking. We explored whether framing information about adverse responses (in positive or negative formats) altered expectancies and experiences of a cold pressor task. We further investigated associations between expectancies and experiences, to inform potential interventions.

Design: Healthy volunteers (N?=?134), randomised to receive positively- or negatively-framed pre-cold pressor task information, self-rated 12 expectancies for cold pressor experiences, emotional state and coping style.

Main Outcome Measures: Self-reports of the same 12-experiences (recorded during and after the experiment) were assessed.

Results: Framing had minimal impact on expectancies and experiences; however, discomfort threshold (p?=?.08, d?=?0.22) showed a trend in the expected direction. Hierarchical regressions revealed expectancies uniquely, significantly predicted 6–23% of the variance for 11 subsequent experiences. Following a popular charity event (Ice Bucket Challenge), all participants showed higher ‘discomfort thresholds’ (p?=?.001, d?=?0.59), and those in the negative frame reported more overall ‘discomfort’ (p?=?.01, d?=?0.60) than participants in the positive condition.

Conclusion: Expectancies uniquely influenced subsequent cold pressor experiences. Framing had minimal impact in this ‘analogue’ medical setting, only influencing ‘discomfort threshold’. ‘Discomfort threshold’ and overall ‘discomfort’ were also impacted by a social media challenge, highlighting a potential area for intervention.     

Impulsivity and Behavior-Dependent Life Events Mediate the Relationship of Reward Sensitivity and Depression,but Not Hypomania,Among at-Risk Adolescents

Both reward sensitivity and impulsivity are related to the development and course of bipolar spectrum disorders (BSDs) and have been implicated in other disorders and negative functional outcomes such as substance abuse, obesity, suicidal behaviors, and risk-taking. Furthermore, according to the transactional component of the Behavioral Approach System (BAS)/reward hypersensitivity theory of BSDs, people with reward hypersensitivity should experience more BAS-relevant events, and thus, are more vulnerable to mood symptoms and episodes via stress generation. Impulsivity may exacerbate stress generation in individuals at risk for BSDs based on exhibiting reward hypersensitivity. The current study examined whether impulsivity explained the generation of stress and subsequent mood symptoms beyond what is explained by reward sensitivity alone. Participants were 131 Moderate BAS and 216 High BAS sensitivity adolescents (M = 18.43 years, SD = 1.40), who completed baseline measures of reward sensitivity and impulsivity, as well as follow-up measures of life events and mood symptoms. Results from linear regression analyses indicated that higher baseline impulsivity predicted behavior-dependent, but not behavior-independent, life events. Furthermore, path analyses suggested that the effect of BAS group on depression symptoms at next follow-up was partly explained via the indirect effect of impulsivity and negative behavior-dependent life events. We did not find these effects for behavior-independent or positive-dependent events or for prediction of hypomanic symptoms. The findings suggest that impulsivity may account for stress generation of negative events that precede depression.