The creation and validation of the Developmental Emotional Faces Stimulus Set

The Developmental Emotional Faces Stimulus Set (DEFSS) is designed to provide a standardized set of emotional stimuli that includes both child and adult faces and that has been validated by participants across a wide range of ages. This article describes the creation and validation of the DEFSS, which includes 404 validated facial photographs of people between 8 and 30 years old displaying five different emotional expressions: happy, angry, fearful, sad, and neutral. The emotions in all photographs were identified correctly by 86 % of the raters (minimum 55 %), and validity did not vary as a function of the age group of the model or of the raters, indicating that the pictures are equally appropriate for use across the entire age range. Strengths and limitations of the DEFSS are discussed.     

情绪性记忆的定向遗忘效应

刺激的情绪性具有增强记忆的效果,那么,带有情绪信息的刺激对遗忘又会产生怎样的影响？已有研究从行为及认知神经机制层面探讨了情绪性刺激对定向遗忘效应的影响,但结果并不一致。总结已有文献发现,以情绪性刺激的材料类型、情绪效价、唤醒度和熟悉度为主的客观因素和以被试的情绪状态为主的主观因素均为影响定向遗忘效应产生及其稳定性的重要原因。这类研究是对有意遗忘研究领域的重要补充,也加深了人们对有意遗忘机制的理解。     

情绪面孔搜索不对称性：情绪观与知觉观的争议

情绪面孔搜索不对称性是指当负性情绪面孔作为目标, 正性情绪面孔作为分心物时, 其搜索速度比正性情绪面孔作为目标时(负性情绪面孔作为分心物)更快。对于这一现象的解释存在争议, 研究者主要从不同情绪面孔在情绪因素和知觉因素两个方面的差异进行解释。来自行为研究和认知神经科学的证据对情绪面孔搜索不对称性效应的解释主要有威胁性刺激捕获假设和情绪摆脱假设的情绪观, 以及嘴部差异说、闭合结构说、知觉组群说以及其他面部特征假设的知觉观。经过对比评价两类观点的理论异同和实验证据认为未来的研究可以整合情绪因素和知觉因素来解释该效应。     

阈下情绪面孔的注视线索提示效应

采用线索-靶子范式，利用2个预实验和1个正式实验，考察阈下不同情绪面孔的注视线索提示效应。要求被试在具有表情与注视线索的面孔呈现完毕后，快速而准确地对目标的位置进行判断。记录被试反应时间。结果显示，当被试未有意识的觉察到注视线索与面孔表情时，注视线索提示效应存在，并受到表情的调节。表现为：在注视线索有效并伴有恐惧表情时，被试对于目标的判断更加迅速；当比较不同表情下线索无效与线索有效条件下的反应时差异时发现，恐惧表情面孔出现时，线索无效与线索有效条件之间反应时的差异最大。结果表明，阈下情绪刺激能够激发个体更原始的生物性反应；在早期注意阶段，个体对于恐惧信息更加敏感，注意存在负向情绪偏差。     

不同抑郁状态个体对情绪面孔的评价研究

目的:为探讨不同抑郁状态个体对情绪面孔的效价评价情况。方法:以BDI、SDS、CCMD-3和汉密顿抑郁量表为工具筛选出42名正常对照组、54名抑郁情绪组、17名抑郁康复组和24名抑郁患者组成员,所有被试完成情绪面孔的效价评价任务。结果:发现抑郁患者组和抑郁情绪组对高兴面孔的评价分数显著低于其他两组(F=7.427,p=0.000);抑郁患者组和抑郁康复组对悲伤面孔的评价分数显著低于其他两组(F=4.956,p=0.003);抑郁患者组和抑郁康复组在情绪评价任务中对高兴和中性面孔的反应时显著长于其他两组(F=13.735,p=0.000;F=18.008,p=0.000),对悲伤面孔的反应时与其他两组无显著差异(p>0.05),抑郁患者组对中性面孔的反应时显著长于悲伤面孔(F=4.240,p=0.018)。结论:抑郁个体对正性刺激存在感知缺陷,对负性刺激存在夸大加工倾向和加工易化效应,其中前者是抑郁的状态特征,后两者是抑郁的特质特征。     

Automaticity and the Amygdala: Nonconscious Responses to Emotional Faces

The human face is an evolved adaptation for social communication. This implies that humans are genetically prepared to produce facial gestures that are automatically decoded by observers. Psychophysiological data demonstrate that humans respond automatically with their facial muscles, with autonomic responses, and with specific regional brain activation of the amygdala when exposed to emotionally expressive faces. Attention is preferentially and automatically oriented toward facial threat. Neuropsychological data, as well as a rapidly expanding brain-imaging literature, implicate the amygdala as a central structure for responding to negative emotional faces, and particularly to fearful ones. However, the amygdala may not be specialized for processing emotional faces, but may instead respond to faces because they provide important information for the defense appraisal that is its primary responsibility.     

Social Anxiety and Attention away from Emotional Faces

A substantial literature indicates that anxiety is often associated with selective attention to threat cues. Socially anxious individuals are excessively concerned about negative evaluation by others. One might therefore predict that high social anxiety would be associated with selective attention to negative facial expressions. On the other hand, some recent models have suggested that social anxiety may be associated with reduced processing of external social cues. A modified dot-probe task was used to investigate face attention. High and low socially anxious individuals were presented with pairs of pictures, consisting of a face (positive, neutral, or negative) and a household object, under conditions of social-evaluative threat or no threat. The results indicated that, compared to low socially anxious individuals, high socially anxious individuals show an attentional bias away from emotional (positive and negative) faces but this effect is only observed under conditions of social-evaluative threat. Theoretical and clinical implications of the results are discussed.     

Attentional Bias for Threat: Evidence for Delayed Disengagement from Emotional Faces

The present paper reports three new experiments suggesting that the valence of a face cue can influence attentional effects in a cueing paradigm. Moreover, heightened trait anxiety resulted in increased attentional dwell-time on emotional facial stimuli, relative to neutral faces. Experiment 1 presented a cueing task, in which the cue was either an "angry", "happy", or "neutral" facial expression. Targets could appear either in the same location as the face (valid trials) or in a different location to the face (invalid trials). Participants did not show significant variations across the different cue types (angry, happy, neutral) in responding to a target on valid trials. However, the valence of the face did affect response times on invalid trials. Specifically, participants took longer to respond to a target when the face cue was "angry" or "happy" relative to neutral. In Experiment 2, the cue-target stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) was increased and an overall inhibition of return (IOR) effect was found (i.e., slower responses on valid trials). However, the "angry" face cue eliminated the IOR effect for both high and low trait anxious groups. In Experiment 3, threat-related and jumbled facial stimuli reduced the magnitude of IOR for high, but not for low, trait-anxious participants.These results suggest that: (i) attentional bias in anxiety may reflect a difficulty in disengaging from threat-related and emotional stimuli, and (ii) threat-related and ambiguous cues can influence the magnitude of the IOR effect.     

返回抑制过程中情绪面孔加工优先：ERPs研究

返回抑制(IOR)是指注意过程中个体对已搜索过的位置进行抑制, 从而在随后该位置上出现目标时发生注意重新定向或反应变慢的过程。本研究使用ERPs技术, 采用线索-靶子范式, 考察了情绪目标辨别任务中IOR的发生过程及二者的神经机制。结果发现, 与无效线索相比, 有效线索下的P1波幅更小, N1波幅更大, 正性、负性面孔N170的波幅比中性面孔大。表明当要求被试做情绪辨别任务时, IOR与对情绪信息的反应之间发生了分离, 表现出情绪加工的优先。这说明IOR和情绪偏向是发生在两种不同神经通路上的适应机制, 也为进一步探究注意与情绪的关系问题提供了来自神经电生理学的证据。     

抑郁个体对情绪面孔的返回抑制能力不足

探讨抑郁对情绪面孔返回抑制能力的影响。以贝克抑郁量表、自评抑郁量表、CCMD-3和汉密顿抑郁量表为工具筛选出了正常对照组、抑郁康复组和抑郁患者组各17名被试进行了真人情绪面孔线索-靶子任务的行为学实验和事件相关电位(ERP)实验。在线索靶子范式中, 靶子在线索消失后出现, 被试对靶子的位置作出反应。行为学实验显示线索靶子间隔时间(stimulus onset asynchronies, SOA)为14ms时, 正常对照组对中性面孔有返回抑制效应, 抑郁康复组对所有面孔均存在返回抑制效应, 患者组对愤怒、悲伤面孔和中性面孔存在返回抑制效应; SOA为250ms时三组被试均对悲伤面孔存在返回抑制能力不足, 以患者组最突出, 康复组对高兴面孔存在返回抑制能力不足; SOA为750ms时正常组对悲伤面孔存在返回抑制效应, 康复组对高兴和悲伤面孔存在返回抑制能力不足, 患者组对悲伤面孔存在返回抑制能力不足, 对愤怒面孔存在返回抑制效应。在SOA为750ms的条件下, ERP波形特点为正常组对高兴面孔线索P3波幅大于其他组, 对高兴面孔无效提示P1波幅小于其他面孔, 对悲伤面孔有效提示P1波幅小于高兴面孔, 对高兴面孔有效提示P3波幅大于患者组, 对悲伤面孔无效提示P3波幅大于其他组; 康复组对悲伤面孔线索P3波幅大于其他面孔, 对高兴面孔有效提示P3波幅大于患者组, 对悲伤面孔无效提示P3波幅小于正常组; 患者组对悲伤面孔线索P1波幅大于其他组、P3波幅大于其他面孔, 对悲伤面孔无效提示P3波幅小于正常组, 高兴面孔有效提示P3波幅小于其他组。提示抑郁患者对负性刺激有返回抑制能力不足, 这种对负性刺激抑制能力的缺失导致抑郁个体难以抗拒负性事件的干扰而受到不良情绪状态的困扰, 所以他们可能更多的体验到抑郁情绪, 并致使抑郁持续和发展。而抑郁康复个体对高兴、悲伤面孔均有返回抑制能力不足, 这让康复个体能同时感受到正、负性刺激, 从而能保持一种认知和情绪上特定的平衡。     

自尊对情绪面孔注意偏向的影响

研究表明低自尊个体对负性信息表现出高度的警觉和关注,而高自尊个体相对来说注意积极地方面,但并未表现明显偏向。为了精确记录注意选择神经加工时间进程,进一步从电生理学角度对低自尊个体的负性注意偏向进行探讨,本研究运用事件相关电位（ERP）技术对不同自尊个体在点-探测任务过程中的注意偏向进行研究。实验一以129名在校大学生作为被试,以大学生面孔情绪图片（高兴、悲伤和中性）作为实验材料,结果发现,高低自尊个体之间没有出现注意偏向的差异。实验二以实验一筛选出的30名高低自尊个体作为被试,选择了更具负性情绪唤醒的愤怒图片作为实验材料（高兴、愤怒和中性）,行为数据结果发现,两组被试都没有出现注意偏向,相反,无论是在高兴面孔条件下还是在愤怒面孔条件下,低自尊个体的反应时都快于高自尊个体;电生理学数据结果发现,在低自尊个体中,在两种情绪面孔条件下,有效线索的P1峰值显著高于无效线索,而无效线索的N2pc峰值显著高于有效线索。电生理学数据表明,无论是负性的还是正性的情绪性的信息都能引起低自尊个体的更多注意,表明低自尊个体更容易受到情绪性信息的影响。     

Event-Related Potentials Related to Normal and Morphed Emotional Faces

S. Bentin and L. Y. Deouell (2000) have suggested that face recognition is achieved through a special-purpose neural mechanism, and its existence can be identified by a specific event-related potential (ERP) correlate, the N170 effect. In the present study, the authors explored the structural significance of N170 by comparing normal vs. morphed stimuli. They used a morphing procedure that allows a fine modification of some perceptual details (first-order relations). The authors also aimed to verify the independence of face identification from other cognitive mechanisms, such as comprehension of emotional facial expressions, by applying an emotion-by-emotion analysis to examine the emotional effect on N170 ERP variation. They analyzed the peak amplitude and latency variables in the temporal window of 120-180 ms. The ERP correlate showed a classic N170 ERP effect, more negative and more posteriorly distributed for morphed faces compared with normal faces. In addition, they found a lateralization effect, with a greater right-side distribution of the N170, but not directly correlated to the morphed or normal conditions. Two cognitive codes, structural and expression, are discussed, and the results are compared with the multilevel model proposed by V. Bruce and A. W. Young (1986, 1998).     

自我参照对情绪性记忆定向遗忘的影响

关于自我参照效应的研究大多从信息编码角度考察自我参照的加工优势, 但作为记忆过程的另一重要方面, 自我参照对遗忘影响的研究较少。遗忘自身经历的情绪性记忆是日常生活中的常见现象。研究采用项目法定向遗忘范式(item-method directed forgetting)考察了自我参照对情绪性记忆定向遗忘的影响。实验一和实验二的结果都表明参照方式会影响定向遗忘：自我参照条件下的材料会发生定向遗忘; 而他人参照条件下的材料不会发生定向遗忘, 两种参照方式下材料间区辨性的不同是导致这一现象的原因。此外, 实验二采用回忆测试发现：自我参照对不同效价的情绪性记忆定向遗忘产生了不同影响, 而自我提升(self-enhancement)动机在其中起着重要的调节作用。     

The family of origin scale: A construct validation study

Data from 69 women and 63 men along with ratings from a panel of expert judges were used to assess the construct validity of the Family Of Origin Scale as a measure of family health. Loevinger's conception of construct validity, focusing on the substantive, structural, and external components of validity, was employed to organize the research procedures followed and the data analytic techniques used. Results showed that the instrument appears to be a useful measure of a warmth-coldness affect dimension in the family of origin, but the multi-dimensional structure of the test, as a measure of family-of-origin health, could not be validated. Suggestions for use, score interpretation, and further development are discussed.     

Presentation and validation of the Radboud Faces Database

Many research fields concerned with the processing of information contained in human faces would benefit from face stimulus sets in which specific facial characteristics are systematically varied while other important picture characteristics are kept constant. Specifically, a face database in which displayed expressions, gaze direction, and head orientation are parametrically varied in a complete factorial design would be highly useful in many research domains. Furthermore, these stimuli should be standardised in several important, technical aspects. The present article presents the freely available Radboud Faces Database offering such a stimulus set, containing both Caucasian adult and children images. This face database is described both procedurally and in terms of content, and a validation study concerning its most important characteristics is presented. In the validation study, all frontal images were rated with respect to the shown facial expression, intensity of expression, clarity of expression, genuineness of expression, attractiveness, and valence. The results show very high recognition of the intended facial expressions.     

情绪调节策略对表情视觉搜索的影响

表情视觉搜索任务是让作为目标的情绪面孔在其他干扰面孔中呈现,并要求被试快速搜索目标以做出反应.本研究采用实验的方法,以表情面孔图片作为实验材料,比较了情绪诱发状态下,情绪调节策略使用与否以及两种不同的情绪调节策略对搜索绩效的影响,同时探讨了目标情绪面孔特征和搜索者即时情绪状态对搜索绩效的作用.结果发现:(1)对微笑面孔的搜索快于生气面孔,且存在显著差异,说明人们对积极的信息有觉察优势;(2)中性情绪状态优于正性和负性情绪状态,且存在显著差异,说明情绪唤起会干扰搜索过程;(3)认知重评和表达抑制策略均优于无情绪调节策略,且存在显著差异.因此,表情搜索绩效与是否使用调节策略、搜索目标特征及搜索者情绪状态有关.     

Emotional Responses to Disfigured Faces: The Influences of Perceived Anonymity,Empathy, and Disgust Sensitivity

Two experiments investigated self-reported emotional reactions to photographs of people with attractive, unattractive, or structurally disfigured faces. In Experiment 1, participants viewing disfigured faces reported raised levels of sorrow and curiosity but not raised levels of negative emotions. In Experiment 2, there was more negative emotion and less positive emotion reported under conditions of relatively high anonymity, compared to low anonymity, specific to disfigured faces, suggesting that self-reports are influenced by social desirability. Trait empathy was associated with sorrow and negative emotions when viewing disfigured faces. Disgust sensitivity was associated with negative emotions and inversely associated with positive emotions.     

Age-Group Differences in Interference from Young and Older Emotional Faces

Human attention is selective, focusing on some aspects of events at the expense of others. In particular, angry faces engage attention. Most studies have used pictures of young faces, even when comparing young and older age groups. Two experiments asked (1) whether task-irrelevant faces of young and older individuals with happy, angry, and neutral expressions disrupt performance on a face-unrelated task, (2) whether interference varies for faces of different ages and different facial expressions, and (3) whether young and older adults differ in this regard. Participants gave speeded responses on a number task while irrelevant faces appeared in the background. Both age groups were more distracted by own than other-age faces. In addition, young participants' responses were slower for angry than happy faces, whereas older participants' responses were slower for happy than angry faces. Factors underlying age-group differences in interference from emotional faces of different ages are discussed.     

小学攻击性男童的社会信息加工及表情知觉

为了探讨小学男童的攻击类型和其社会信息和表情识别特点,该研究抽取了808名小学生进行攻击性的教师评定和同伴评定.筛选出主动攻击11人、反应攻击11人、混合攻击27人,加由17名非攻击儿童组成的控制组,参加社会信息加工特点和表情识别特点实验.结果显示:(1)小学低年级攻击性儿童以混合性攻击为主,反应攻击和主动攻击所占比例较小;(2)高攻击性人群的攻击反应和愤怒反应较强,可是,不同类型之间的差异没有被检测出来;(3)在不同攻击类型中,主动攻击显示较强的敌意归因;(4)主动攻击对悲伤表情的辨认能力较低,反应攻击组对愤怒表情的辨认较弱.研究反映:攻击性儿童在社会信息加工和表情知觉能力上均存在一定的特点,而且,不同攻击类型之间也存在一定的差异.该研究对制定儿童攻击性干预计划具有一定指导意义.