The timing of psychosocial changes in women's lives: the years 25 to 45

Sixty women, aged 30, 35, 40, and 45, participated in a retrospective interview concerning psychosocial changes in their adult lives. Subjects' responses provided self-report data concerning specific psychosocial changes, and judges who read the interview protocols provided independent ratings of major psychosocial transitions. The distributions of self-reported changes and rated transitions across both chronological age and family cycle phases were examined statistically. Rated transitions were found to be reliably related to chronological age but not to family cycle phase. Specifically, 78% of the subjects manifested a major transition commencing between ages 27 and 30. That transition was characterized initially by personal disruption, followed by reassessment and finally by increased psychological well-being. Both chronological age and family cycle phase were reliably related to a variety of self-reported changes. The implications for conceptions of adult developmental changes are discussed.     

The time of our lives: life span development of timing and event tracking

Life span developmental profiles were constructed for 305 participants (ages 4-95) for a battery of paced and unpaced perceptual-motor timing tasks that included synchronize-continue tapping at a wide range of target event rates. Two life span hypotheses, derived from an entrainment theory of timing and event tracking, were tested. A preferred period hypothesis predicted a monotonic slowing of a preferred rate (tempo) of event tracking across the life span. An entrainment region hypothesis predicted a quadratic profile in the range of event rates that produced effective timing across the life span; specifically, age-specific entrainment regions should be narrower in childhood and late adulthood than in midlife. Findings across tasks provide converging support for both hypotheses. Implications of these findings are discussed for understanding critical periods in development and age-related slowing of event timing.     

The impact of breast cancer on the lives of middle-aged women: results from the Australian longitudinal study of women's health.

This article investigated the impact of breast cancer (BC) in middle-aged Australian women (45-50 years). Two waves of data collected 2 years apart from a longitudinal survey of 12,177 women identified 3 groups: (a) 11,933 (98%) who reported never having had BC, (b) 181 (1.5%) who reported a diagnosis of BC at Time 1, and (c) 63 (0.5%) who reported onset of BC between Time 1 and Time 2. Repeated measures analysis of variance was used to compare the 3 groups. Women with recent onset of BC experienced significant changes across a range of functioning compared with the other 2 groups. Compared with women with no BC, women with longer established onset of BC had significantly worse health and social outcomes, but these were associated with small effect sizes. Both groups of women with BC reported less impact on mental and emotional health than on other areas of functioning.     

Motivated to penalize: women's strategic rejection of successful women

Two studies tested the hypothesis that females penalize women who succeed in male gender-typed jobs to salvage their own self-views regarding competence. The authors proposed that women are motivated to penalize successful women (i.e., characterize them as unlikable and interpersonally hostile) to minimize the self-evaluative consequences of social comparison with a highly successful female target. Results supported the hypothesis. Whereas both male and female participants penalized successful women, blocking this penalization reduced female--but not male--participants' self-ratings of competence (Study 1). Moreover, positive feedback provided to female participants about their potential to succeed (Study 2) weakened negative reactions to successful women without costs to subsequent self-ratings of competence. These results suggest that the interpersonal derogation of successful women by other women functions as a self-protective strategy against threatening upward social comparisons.     

Work options for women in women's magazines: The medium and the message

A content analysis of women profiled in women's magazines asked, How do “established” vs. “new” magazines differ in socialization messages about work options for women? Six established and four new magazines were analyzed from 1971 through 1980, for a total random sample of 232 issues (172 individual profiles). Three hypotheses were investigated. Compared to new magazines, established magazines are (1) less likely to present women in a variety of work roles and (2) more likely to profile women in “traditional” occupations. (3) Employed women profiled in established magazines are less likely to perceive themselves as having responsibility and/or power/influence in relation to their jobs. Hypotheses 2 and 3 were supported. The discussion highlights changes in both types of magazines but notes the fairly traditional message established magazines present vs. new magazines.     

Emotional responses to work-family conflict: an examination of gender role orientation working men and women

The present study tested the effect of work-family conflict on emotions and the moderating effects of gender role orientation. On the basis of a multilevel design, the authors found that family-interfering-with- work was positively related to guilt, and gender role orientation interacted with both types of conflict (work-interfering-with-family and family-interfering-with-work) to predict guilt. Specifically, in general, traditional individuals experienced more guilt from family-interfering-with-work, and egalitarian individuals experienced more guilt from work-interfering-with-family. Additionally, a higher level interaction indicated that traditional men tended to experience a stronger relationship between family-interfering-with-work and guilt than did egalitarian men or women of either gender role orientation.     

The distinction between tapping and circle drawing with and without tactile feedback: an examination of the sources of timing variance

An internal clock-like process has been implicated in the control of rhythmic movements performed for short (250-2,000 ms) time scales. However, in the past decade, it has been claimed that a clock-like central timing mechanism is not required for smooth cyclical movements. The distinguishing characteristic delineating clock-like (event) from non-clock-like (emergent) timing is thought to be the kinematic differences between tapping (discrete-like) and circle drawing (smooth). In the archetypal event-timed task (tapping), presence of perceptual events is confounded with the discrete kinematics of movement (table contact). Recently, it has been suggested that discrete perceptual events help participants synchronize with a metronome. However, whether discrete tactile events directly elicit event timing has yet to be determined. In the present study, we examined whether a tactile event inserted into the circle drawing timing task could elicit event timing in a self-paced (continuation) timing task. For a majority of participants, inserting an event into the circle drawing task elicited timing behaviour consistent with the idea that an internal timekeeper was employed (a correlation of circle drawing with tapping). Additionally, some participants exhibited characteristics of event timing in the typically emergently timed circle drawing task. We conclude that the use of event timing can be influenced by the insertion of perceptual events, and it also exhibits persistence over time and over tasks within certain individuals.     

Neurobehavioral and psychosocial functioning of women exposed to high altitude in mountaineering

The effects of chronic hypoxemia upon cognition and behavior were studied in women exposed to high altitude in mountaineering. Neuropsychological tests and psychosocial and physiological questionnaires were given to eight women before, during, and immediately after a Himalayan climb to 20,500 feet. Cognitive functioning remained relatively intact with only two significant decrements, complex abstract reasoning and word-finding ability. Significant changes were found on all psychosocial and physiological questionnaires. Feelings of acceptance of others and anxiety declined significantly. Physical symptoms were greatest during the first five days of ascent. Subjects' self-ratings of mental functioning were significantly better after the expedition than either before or during the climb. Self-assessments were correlated with emotions and physical symptoms, not with actual performances on the test battery. It is suggested that complex cognitive tasks and psychosocial functioning be studied in more detail as these were more influenced by exposure to high altitude in mountaineering.     

Comparison of gait patterns between young and elderly women: an examination of coordination

This study investigated intralimb coordination during walking in young and elderly women using the theoretical model of dynamical systems. 20 women, 10 Young (M age=24.6 yr., SD= 3.2 yr.) and 10 Elderly (M age=73.7 yr., SD=4.9 yr.), were videotaped during free speed gait and gait perturbed by an ankle weight. Two parameters, one describing the phasing relationship between segments (mean absolute relative phase) and the other the variability of this relationship (deviation in phase), were calculated from the kinematics. Two-way analysis of variance (age and weight) with repeated measures on weight indicated that during the braking period the weight increased the mean absolute relative phase between the shank and the thigh and decreased it between the foot and the shank. The Elderly women had significant smaller values for the mean absolute relative phase between the shank and the thigh during the braking period. For the same period, deviation in phase increased for the segmental 'relationship between the shank and the thigh. The findings suggest that changes in intralimb coordination take place with asymmetrical weighting and the aging process. These changes are most clearly present during the braking period.     

A qualitative investigation of Muslim and Christian women's views of religion and feminism in their lives

This qualitative investigation explored a relatively understudied aspect of cultural diversity: feminism and religion in the lives of religiously diverse women. More specifically, structured interviews were used to investigate views of religion, women's issues, gender roles, culture, and feminism for a small group of Muslim and Christian women living in the United States. The data were analyzed using consensual qualitative research methods (Hill, Thompson, & Williams, 1997). Findings indicated a complex relationship between feminism, gender roles, culture, and religion for these women with the majority of the Muslim women reporting that their religion supports feminist principles and identifying themselves as feminist. Christian women were less willing to endorse the feminist label. Implications for multicultural feminist practice are discussed.     

Pathways to women's crime: differences among women convicted of drug, violence and fraud offenses

The current study was conducted on 60 Israeli female inmates. Our aim was to examine the differences among women convicted for drug, violence, and fraud offenses by socio-demographic variables and self-control and aggression levels. Results revealed that the drug group was characterized by measures attributed to chronic delinquency, and the fraud group was found to fit the pathway to low crime. At the same time, the violence group was not characterized by any of these patterns. The findings were discussed in relation to their theoretical contribution and applicability.     

Body image dissatisfaction among women with scleroderma: extent and relationship to psychosocial function.

Body image dissatisfaction and its relationship to psychosocial function were investigated in 127 women with scleroderma Results indicated elevated body image dissatisfaction, with participants reporting higher levels than a sample of patients with severe burn injuries. Age, skin tightening above the elbows, and functional disability were related to heightened body image dissatisfaction, suggesting that younger patients with more severe disease may be at greatest risk for developing body image concerns. Path analysis revealed that depression mediated the relationship between body image dissatisfaction and psychosocial function. Results suggest that body image dissatisfaction is a significant concern in women with scleroderma and should be assessed routinely. Early identification and treatment of body image dissatisfaction may help prevent the development of depression and psychosocial impairment in this population.     

Depression in South Asian women: Asian women's beliefs on causes and cures

A qualitative, grounded theory approach within a constructivist paradigm is employed to explore perceptions of causes and cures of depression in South Asian women. Ten Asian women suffering from depression and three of their carers were interviewed about their beliefs around the cause of their own and their relative's depression, and the implications of these beliefs for treatment. Findings suggested that understanding their experience of conflicting cultural expectations, distinctions between psychosocial, spiritual, physical health problems and communication problems (general and culture specific) were central to these women's experiences of depression The implications of results for services are discussed and limitations of the study considered in line with criteria developed for constructivist research.     

Defining recovery from an eating disorder: Conceptualization, validation, and examination of psychosocial functioning and psychiatric comorbidity

Conceptually, eating disorder recovery should include physical, behavioral, and psychological components, but such a comprehensive approach has not been consistently employed. Guided by theory and recent recovery research, we identified a “fully recovered” group (n = 20) based on physical (body mass index), behavioral (absence of eating disorder behaviors), and psychological (Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire) indices, and compared them with groups of partially recovered (n = 15), active eating disorder (n = 53), and healthy controls (n = 67). The fully recovered group was indistinguishable from controls on all eating disorder-related measures used, while the partially recovered group was less disordered than the active eating disorder group on some measures, but not on body image. Regarding psychosocial functioning, both the fully and partially recovered groups had psychosocial functioning similar to the controls, but there was a pattern of more of the partially recovered group reporting eating disorder aspects interfering with functioning. Regarding other psychopathology, the fully recovered group was no more likely than the controls to experience current Axis I pathology, but they did have elevated rates of current anxiety disorder. Results suggest that a stringent definition of recovery from an eating disorder is meaningful. Clinical implications and future directions regarding defining eating disorder recovery are discussed.     

The provision of advocacy services to women leaving abusive partners: An examination of short-term effects

Examined the short-term impact of providing advocacy services to women leaving battered women's shelters. The study employed a true longitudinal experimental design. Women in the advocacy condition received intensive one-on-one services with trained paraprofessional advocates. Advocates assisted women in accessing needed community resources. Women in the control condition received no additional postshelter services. Findings corroborated earlier research suggesting that battered women lack many resources necessary for independent living and that working with advocates produced greater effectiveness in accessing needed resources. Ongoing research will examine the long-term impact on life satisfaction, future victimization, and living arrangements.     

Sex and power in the academy: modeling sexual harassment in the lives of college women

The authors build an integrated model of the process by which academic sexual harassment undermines women's well-being; also examined is harasser power as a potential moderator of this process. Data from 1,455 college women suggest that sexual harassment experiences are associated with increased psychological distress, which then relates to lower academic satisfaction, greater physical illness, and greater disordered eating. The cumulative effect is greater disengagement from the academic environment, which in turn relates to performance decline (i.e., lower grades). Regardless of how frequently the harassment occurred, academic satisfaction was lower when the harassment came from higher-status individuals (i.e., faculty, staff, or administrators). At the same time, harassment was equally detrimental to mental health, regardless of who perpetrated it. The article concludes with implications for theory, research, and intervention.     

Race and vulnerability to stress: an examination of differential vulnerability

In this article the possibility of race differences in vulnerability to stress is considered. Structural models linking socioeconomic status, age, and life-change events to psychological distress are fit to blacks' and whites' data, which were obtained in a community survey of 829 Florida residents to evaluate differences in vulnerability. Life-change-distress paths were slightly larger among blacks than among whites, though not significantly so. The possible adaptive or coping resources provided by supportive social ties and by fatalistic responses to chronic stress are suggested as topics for further research with regard to psychological well-being among disadvantaged groups.