Amnesia,folklore and folks: recovered memories in clinical practice

The concepts of loss of control and craving are reveiwed and relevant experimental findings are discussed. Speed of drinking is suggested as a behavioural measure of craving and an experiment is described to test the hypothesis that craving is primed by a moderate dose of alcohol (45 gms). The hypothesis was confirmed but only for the severely dependent alcoholics.     

The concept of craving and its measurement.

By encouraging short periods of abstinence, conditions representing high and low craving were arranged in the homes of 10 alcoholic subjects on two separate occasions. The alcoholic's subjective, physiological and behavioural responses and their interrelationships over a three and a half-hour response prevention period, were recorded in an attempt to define the concept of craving. A behavioural measure, speed of drinking a prescribed amount of alcohol, was validated as a correlate of craving.     

The relative role of nicotine dependence and smoking-related cognitions in adolescents' process of smoking cessation

The present study evaluates the role of distinct components of nicotine dependence (craving, withdrawal, behavioural dependence) in comparison to smoking-related cognitions (attitudes, perceived social approval, self-efficacy) in adolescent smoking cessation. In the process towards smoking cessation, we distinguish between distinct behavioural transitions, respectively, short-term abstinence, reduction in smoking behaviour and prolonged cessation, to evaluate differences in cessation-related antecedents as a function of varying behavioural outcomes. A total of 850 adolescent smokers (age 14-16) participated in the present study. Smoking behaviour was assessed 1 year after baseline. Results showed that all dependence components had a distinct role in the prediction of behavioural change towards cessation. Furthermore, each behavioural transition was predicted by a distinct set of variables, indicating that contributions of cessation-related factors vary across the course towards cessation. Overall, our findings suggest that smoking-related cognitions are particularly relevant in the initiation of behavioural change, such as short-term abstinence, whereas nicotine dependence, craving in particular, becomes increasingly important in the prediction of maintained behavioural change, such as prolonged cessation. Implications encompass enhanced attention to the multidimensional nature of nicotine dependence and the value of comparing different behavioural outcomes in a comprehensive understanding of cessation-related factors.     

The relative role of nicotine dependence and smoking-related cognitions in adolescents’ process of smoking cessation

The present study evaluates the role of distinct components of nicotine dependence (craving, withdrawal, behavioural dependence) in comparison to smoking-related cognitions (attitudes, perceived social approval, self-efficacy) in adolescent smoking cessation. In the process towards smoking cessation, we distinguish between distinct behavioural transitions, respectively, short-term abstinence, reduction in smoking behaviour and prolonged cessation, to evaluate differences in cessation-related antecedents as a function of varying behavioural outcomes. A total of 850 adolescent smokers (age 14–16) participated in the present study. Smoking behaviour was assessed 1 year after baseline. Results showed that all dependence components had a distinct role in the prediction of behavioural change towards cessation. Furthermore, each behavioural transition was predicted by a distinct set of variables, indicating that contributions of cessation-related factors vary across the course towards cessation. Overall, our findings suggest that smoking-related cognitions are particularly relevant in the initiation of behavioural change, such as short-term abstinence, whereas nicotine dependence, craving in particular, becomes increasingly important in the prediction of maintained behavioural change, such as prolonged cessation. Implications encompass enhanced attention to the multidimensional nature of nicotine dependence and the value of comparing different behavioural outcomes in a comprehensive understanding of cessation-related factors.     

Exploring the role of personal normative beliefs in the theory of reasoned action: The problem of discriminating between alternative path models

In the 1967 version of Fishbein's model of the attitude-behaviour relationship a distinction was drawn between personal and social normative beliefs. Personal normative beliefs were later removed from the model on the grounds that they act as an alternative measure of behavioural intention. It is argued that the existing literature does not support this hypothesis and data is presented which indicates that personal normative beliefs are not an alternative measure of behavioural intention. It is argued that personal normative beliefs can be reconceptualized as measuring a person's ideal behavioural intention; a variable which mediates the relationship between attitudes, subjective norms and intentions, Evidence is presented which supports this hypothesis, but it is further demonstrated that an alternative model can be fitted to the present data. It is argued that it is impossible to discriminate between these alternative models on the basis of path analytic techniques, and the implications that this finding has for attitude research are discussed.     

辣食渴求者抑制控制能力的行为和ERP研究

采用事件相关电位(ERP)技术,探讨一般线索Go/Nogo和辣食线索Go/Nogo任务过程中,辣食渴求者和非辣食渴求者的抑制控制能力。（1）行为结果显示,两组被试辣食线索的反应时和错误率无显著差异,均在任务类型上有差异,即对辣食线索的反应更慢;（2）ERP结果显示,在辣食相关线索Go/Nogo任务中辣食渴求者的N2b和P3波幅都显著小于非辣食渴求者,N2a没有差异;在一般线索Go/Nogo任务中,ERP成分没有发现显著差异。结果提示,辣食渴求者只在辣食相关线索的抑制控制能力弱于非辣食渴求者,这可能意味着他们对辣食线索抑制反应的缺失。     

Conditioned craving cues elicit an automatic approach tendency

In two experiments, we used a Pavlovian differential conditioning procedure to induce craving for chocolate. As a result of repeated pairing with chocolate intake, initially neutral cues came to elicit an automatic approach tendency in a speeded stimulus-response compatibility reaction time task. This automatic approach tendency, moreover, seemed to be sensitive to manipulations of extinction and renewal in the Pavlovian conditioning procedure. These findings corroborate and extend previous reports of automatic approach tendencies elicited by substance-relevant cues in addiction, while controlling for alternative accounts for such observations. Moreover, our data lend support to and extend learning models of cue-induced craving and addiction. Finally, we argue that the procedure we present here provides an ecologically valid behavioural tool that allows studying processes involved in cue-induced craving, addiction and relapse without relying on verbal report.     

Motor proficiency and emotional/behavioural disturbance in autism and Asperger's disorder: another piece of the neurological puzzle?

The relationship of motor proficiency with emotional/behavioural disturbance, autistic symptoms and communication disturbance was investigated in children diagnosed with autism and Asperger's disorder (AD). The Movement Assessment Battery for Children was used as a measure of motor impairment, and the Developmental Behavioural Checklist was used as a measure of emotional/behavioural disturbance in the following groups: AD (n?=?22), high functioning autism (HFA) (n?=?23), LFA (n?=?8) and typically developing children (n?=?20). The HFA group had more difficulty with motor items, such as ball skills and balance, than did the AD group. There were significant positive correlations between impairments in motor proficiency (in particular ball skills and balance) and emotional/behavioural disturbance, autistic symptoms and communication disturbance. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that there are qualitative and quantitative differences in the motor profile between autism and AD. In addition, the association between motor proficiency impairment and emotional/behavioural disturbance in autism and AD emphasizes the importance for screening of co-occurring emotional/behavioural symptoms in individuals with motor difficulties. These findings have implications for the potential use of adjunct motor measures in the diagnosis and definition of autism spectrum disorders.     

Effects of nicotine deprivation on craving response covariation in smokers

Most models of craving propose that when cravings are strong, diverse responses--thought to index an underlying craving state--covary. Previous studies provided weak support for this hypothesis. The authors tested whether nicotine deprivation affects degree of covariation across multiple measures related to craving. Heavy and light smokers (N = 127) were exposed to smoking cues while either nicotine deprived or nondeprived. Measures included urge ratings, affective valence, a behavioral choice task assessing perceived reinforcement value of smoking, and smoking-related judgment tasks. Results indicated higher correlations in the nicotine-deprived than in nondeprived group. The measures principally responsible for this effect loaded onto a single common Craving factor for nicotine-deprived but not nondeprived smokers. These findings suggest that, under certain conditions, measures of craving-related processes covary.     

Visuospatial tasks suppress craving for cigarettes

The Elaborated Intrusion (EI) theory of desire posits that visual imagery plays a key role in craving. We report a series of experiments testing this hypothesis in a drug addiction context. Experiment 1 showed that a mental visual imagery task with neutral content reduced cigarette craving in abstaining smokers, but that an equivalent auditory task did not. The effect of visual imagery was replicated in Experiment 2, which also showed comparable effects of non-imagery visual working memory interference. Experiment 3 showed that the benefit of visual over auditory interference was not dependent upon imagery being used to induce craving. Experiment 4 compared a visuomotor task, making shapes from modeling clay, with a verbal task (counting back from 100), and again showed a benefit of the visual over the non-visual task.We conclude that visual imagery supports craving for cigarettes. Competing imagery or visual working memory tasks may help tackle craving in smokers trying to quit.     

Fluoxetine inhibits corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)-induced behavioural responses in rats

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is a potent neuromodulator of stress-related behaviour but the neural mechanisms underlying these effects are not clear. Studies were designed to test the hypothesis that CRF-induced behavioural arousal involves interactions with brainstem serotonergic systems. To examine interactions between CRF and serotonergic systems in the regulation of behaviour, CRF (1 microg, intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.)) or vehicle was infused in the presence or absence of the selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor fluoxetine (0, 0.1, 1 or 10 mg/kg, intravenous (i.v.)). Fluoxetine was used at these doses because it is known to decrease serotonin cell firing rates while increasing extracellular serotonin concentrations in select forebrain regions. We then measured behavioural, neurochemical and endocrine responses. CRF increased locomotion and spontaneous non-ambulatory motor activity (SNAMA) in the home cages. Fluoxetine decreased tissue 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentrations, a measure of serotonin metabolism, in specific limbic brain regions of CRF-treated rats (nucleus accumbens shell region, entorhinal cortex, central nucleus of the amygdala). Furthermore, fluoxetine inhibited CRF-induced SNAMA. CRF and fluoxetine independently increased plasma corticosterone concentrations, but the responses had distinct temporal profiles. Overall, these data are consistent with the hypothesis that CRF-induced facilitation of behavioural activity is dependent on brainstem serotonergic systems. Therefore, fluoxetine may attenuate or alleviate some behavioural responses to stress by interfering with CRF-induced responses.     

Reduced automatic motivational orientation towards food in restricting anorexia nervosa

A striking and characteristic feature of the restricting subtype of anorexia nervosa (AN) is that they are extremely successful in regulating their food intake in a destructive manner. A possible explanation for the persistent character of their restricted food intake could be a loss of the motivational saliency of food in restricting AN patients. The present study aimed to investigate motivational orientation for food in the restricting subtype of anorexia nervosa with an indirect performance-based measure and a self-report measure of craving. An indirect approach avoidance task was administered to measure automatic approach tendencies for high-fat and low-fat food in restricting adolescent AN-like patients (n=89) and a group of healthy adolescents (n=76). As predicted, restricting AN-like patients showed less automatic motivational orientation toward food than healthy controls. In a similar vein, AN-like patients reported less craving for food than the group of healthy controls. The loss of an automatic motivational orientation toward food together with the deliberate strategy to avoid food might help explain the ability of restricting AN-like patients to regulate their food intake.     

Salivation: an assessment of food craving?

The validity of salivation as a measure of hunger and food craving was examined. Previous studies examining the relationship between salivation, food cues, and self-reports of hunger and food craving reported inconsistent results. The present study, using a modification of the Strongin-Hinsie-Peck (SHP) test to measure salivation, examined these relationships with overweight subjects. Salivation measures were taken on 25 subjects in a weight-control program during three experimental conditions: baseline I, food exposure and baseline II. While food exposure significantly increased the amount of salivation as compared to baseline, salivation did not correlate with self-reports of hunger or food cravings. Significant correlations were found for salivation, age. sex, and body fat. Implications of these results are discussed.     

Food cravings consume limited cognitive resources

Using Tiffany's (1990) cognitive model of drug use and craving as a theoretical basis, the present experiments investigated whether cravings for food expend limited cognitive resources. Cognitive performance was assessed by simple reaction time (Experiment 1) and an established measure of working memory capacity, the operation span task (Experiment 2). In each experiment, female undergraduate students were randomly assigned to a craving or control condition. Participants in the craving condition abstained from eating chocolate for 24 hours prior to testing and performed the cognitive task in the presence of chocolate, a manipulation that successfully elicited chocolate cravings. In both experiments, there was no main effect of craving condition on cognition, but there was a significant interaction between condition and trait chocolate craving. In support of Tiffany's model, our results show that habitual food cravers direct limited cognitive resources to craving-related cues, at the cost of competing cognitive demands. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2008 APA, all rights reserved).     

A pictorial attitude IAT as a measure of implicit motives

We tested the hypothesis that a pictorial attitude variant of the Implicit Association Test (PA‐IAT) is a valid measure of implicit motives. The PA‐IAT aims to capture attitudes towards pictures that are related to implicit motives. In the first two studies, we showed that the pictorial attitude Implicit Association Test (IAT) correlated more highly with non‐IAT measures of implicit motives than other IAT variants. In the third study, we established the validity of the PA‐IAT experimentally and showed that the pictorial attitude IAT correlated with non‐declarative behavioural measures only if implicit motives were aroused. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of executive processes in prospective memory tasks

Prospective remembering refers to remembering and acting on behavioural intentions. Three experiments tested the hypothesis that prospective remembering requires the availability of executive processes. It was expected that this is more important when intentions are stated in categorical terms. Type of instruction (specific versus categorical), typicality of the cue in relation to the category specified, and executive load were manipulated. Results showed a general benefit of specific instructions. Furthermore, with categorical instructions, performance was better with typical cues. Although the data suggested that executive processes are responsible for the processing of cues, the load manipulation had no significant effect on the prospective memory measure. Thus, no evidence was found for the hypothesis that prospective remembering requires the availability of executive processes. It is argued that it is a matter of strategic choice whether executive processes are deployed: One does not need to monitor for cues but can choose to rely on bottom‐up processes. Monitoring may be sufficient, but not necessary for successful prospective remembering.     

Does Cooperation in the Laboratory Reflect the Operation of a Broad Trait?

The Dictator Game, a face valid measure of altruism, and the Trust Game, a face valid measure of trust and trustworthiness, are among the most widely used behavioural measures in human cooperation research. Researchers have observed considerable covariation among these and other economic games, leading them to assert that there exists a general human propensity to cooperate that varies in strength across individuals and manifests itself across a variety of social settings. To formalize this hypothesis, we created an S‐1 bifactor model using 276 participants' Dictator Game and Trust Game decisions. The general factor had significant, moderate associations with self‐reported and peer‐reported altruism, trust, and trustworthiness. Thus, the positive covariation among economic games is not reducible to the games' shared situational features. Two hundred participants returned for a second session. The general factor based on Dictator Game and Trust Game decisions from this session did not significantly predict self‐reported and peer‐reported cooperation, suggesting that experience with economic games causes them to measure different traits from those that are reflected in self‐assessments and peer‐assessments of cooperativeness. © 2018 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Altruistic punishment as an explanation of hunter-gatherer cooperation: how much has experimental economics achieved?

The discovery of the altruistic punishment mechanism as a replicable experimental result is a genuine achievement of behavioural economics. The hypothesis that cooperation in hunter-gatherer societies is sustained by altruistic punishment is a scientifically legitimate conjecture, but it must be tested against real-world observations. Guala's doubts about the evidential support for this hypothesis are well founded.     

Neurological and neuropsychological signs in obsessive compulsive disorder: interaction with behavioural treatment

The main aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that neurological soft signs and neuropsychological abnormalities associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) predict poor response to behavioural treatment. The design permitted investigation of secondary hypotheses, regarding correlations among these neurological markers and levels of symptomatology, and their stability in relation to changes in levels of symptomatology. Thirty-five participants satisfying DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for OCD were assessed pre- and postbehavioural treatment using a scaled measure of symptom severity, and a battery of tests sensitive to neuropsychological deficits associated with OCD. Eighteen of the participants were also assessed on an inventory of neurological soft signs. Neither neuropsychological test deficits nor neurological soft signs pretreatment predicted response to behavioural treatment. Lower performance on neuropsychological tasks and symptom severity were both significantly correlated with levels of soft signs. Some neurological markers were less severe posttreatment, but these changes were not related to treatment response.     

Development of the brief Spanish Cocaine Craving Questionnaire-General

Combining two different samples of cocaine users (N = 183), we tested the factor structure of a brief (12-item), Spanish version of the Cocaine Craving Questionnaire-General using confirmatory factor analysis. The four-factor model provided excellent fit to the measure. Moreover, the measure significantly differentiated between recent cocaine users and abstainers, as well as between participants with different levels of severity of drug-use history. Factor 1 expresses highly intense and overwhelming desires, Factor 2 expresses lack of self-control over cocaine use, Factor 3 items express lack of positive reinforcement expectancies, and Factor 4 expresses stimulating expectancies for cocaine use. The results revealed the validity of the CCQ-General brief as an instrument to assess cocaine craving in Spanish and supported the conceptualization of cocaine craving as a multifaceted construct.