Classifying types of concept and conceptual structure: Some taxonomies

Abstract

The study of concepts can advance further by clarifying the meanings of basic terms such as “prototype” and by constructing a large-scale primary taxonomy of concept types. This paper presents the latter, based on concept structure, two secondary concept taxonomies and one of conceptual structures. The primary taxonomy organises much data and several previous taxonomies into a single framework. It suggests that many concept types exist, and that type determines how a concept is learned, is used and how it develops. As well as enumerating and interrelating some major types, the taxonomy predicts that many individuals' concepts will consist of mixes of information types. The present study suggests that the field will progress faster by ceasing to look for the single way anything is done. A better strategy is to enumerate concept types, ways each can be learned and developmental patterns, and then see what variables affect these and how common each is.     

The current status of the psychoanalytic theory of instinctual drives. I: Drive concept, classification, and development

The evolution of Freud's theory of instinctual drives, with the accompanying models of a mental apparatus, is remarkable for its tenacious adherence to addressing the fundamental problems of human psychology, here phrased as the problems of body-mind-environment relationships. The concept of instinctual drives continues to be one of the most pervasive concepts of psychoanalysis, weathering considerable attack over the last several decades, although losing some clarity in the process. I have cited and discussed as basic issues of the concept of instinctual drives: the relationship of observational data and theoretical constructs in psychology; whether our construct of drives is or should be or can be purely psychological; the problem of conceptualizing the ontogenetic origin of mind; the issues of the "force-meaning conjunction" and the problem of psychic energy in psychoanalytic constructs; and the relation of our concept of instinctual drives to the concept of instincts in general. It seems that progress with these fundamental issues might be made by utilizing models that are more homologous with present knowledge in related fields than is Freud's reflex arc model of the nervous system, in order to build a better drive construct within the framework of psychoanalysis. The classification of instinctual drives remains a problem. Clinically, aggression seems to be a factor in conflict, very much like sexuality. Despite widespread acceptance of the idea of aggression as simply parallel to sexuality in all respects, there are major discrepancies. Perhaps aggression cannot be viewed as a drive after all; perhaps our drive construct needs to be modified to accommodate aggression. Certainly, controversy in this area has interfered with the production of good clinical studies which could begin to increase our understanding of aggression and its place in the human personality. The psychoanalytic theory of drive development has probably undergone less change in the last forty years than other aspects of drive theory, although careful observational work has led to alterations of our views of the age of onset of genital awareness, of female sexual development and function, and of the latency period. This is the conclusion of the first of two papers examining the post-Freud development of the theory of instinctual drives in psychoanalysis. The companion paper follows on p. 402 of this issue of The Psychoanalytic Quarterly.     

Syllabic structure and the acquisition of consonants: The great conspiracy in word formation

The syllabic structure and phonemic inventory of one child were analyzed at the beginning of word production and compared with similar records reported in the literature. The data appear to favor an interactionist view of lexical development which recognizes the contribution of particular syllabic forms to the acquisition of consonantal phonemes and the role these phonemes play in expanded syllabic form. The discussion argues for the primacy of CV as the dominant unit of production and identifies a number of constraints on syllabic forms and a set of conspiratorial rules which assure the production of these forms. Further, it is argued that certain strategies operating within the constraints to particular syllabic forms result in the ordered development of syllabic structures.     

German norms for semantic typicality, age of acquisition, and concept familiarity

The present study introduces the first substantial German database with norms for semantic typicality, age of acquisition, and concept familiarity for 824 exemplars of 11 semantic categories, including four natural (ANIMALS, BIRDS, FRUITS,: and VEGETABLES: ) and five man-made (CLOTHING, FURNITURE, VEHICLES, TOOLS: , and MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: ) categories, as well as PROFESSIONS: and SPORTS: . Each category exemplar in the database was collected empirically in an exemplar generation study. For each category exemplar, norms for semantic typicality, estimated age of acquisition, and concept familiarity were gathered in three different rating studies. Reliability data and additional analyses on effects of semantic category and intercorrelations between age of acquisition, semantic typicality, concept familiarity, word length, and word frequency are provided. Overall, the data show high inter- and intrastudy reliabilities, providing a new resource tool for designing experiments with German word materials. The full database is available in the supplementary material of this file and also at www.psychonomic.org/archive .     

Connectionist representation,semantic compositionality,and the instability of concept structure

Summary In the present paper connectionist approaches to the problem of internal representation and the nature of concepts are discussed. In the first part the concept of representation that underlies connectionist modeling is made explicit. It is argued that the connectionist view of representation relies on a correlational theory of semantic content- i.e., the covariation between internal and external states is taken as the basis for ascribing meaning to internal states. The problems and virtues of such a correlational approach to internal representation are addressed. The second part of the paper is concerned with whether connectionism is capable of accounting for the apparent productivity and systematicity of language and thought. There is an evaluation of the recent arguments of Fodor and Pylyshyn, who claim that systematicity can only be explained if one conceives of mental representations as structured symbols composed of context-free constituents. There is a review of empirical evidence that strongly suggests that concepts are not fixed memory structures and that the meaning of constituent symbols varies, depending on the context in which they are embedded. On the basis of this review it is concluded that the meaning of a complex expression is not computed from the context-free meanings of the constituents, and that strong compositionality, as endorsed by Fodor and Pylyshyn (1988), seems implausible as a process theory for the comprehension of complex concepts. Instead, the hypothesis is endorsed that constraint satisfaction in distributed connectionist networks may allow for an alternative account of weak compositionality compatible with the context sensitivity of meaning. In the final section, it is argued that neither mere implementation of a language of thought in connectionist networks nor radical elimination of symbol systems seems to be a fruitful research strategy, but that it might be more useful to discuss how connectionist systems can develop the capacity to use external symbol systems like language or logic without instantiating symbol systems themselves.     

Nicolas Bourbaki and the concept of mathematical structure

In the present article two possible meanings of the term mathematical structure are discussed: a formal and a nonformal one. It is claimed that contemporary mathematics is structural only in the nonformal sense of the term. Bourbaki's definition of structure is presented as one among several attempts to elucidate the meaning of that nonformal idea by developing a formal theory which allegedly accounts for it. It is shown that Bourbaki's concept of structure was, from a mathematical point of view, a superfluous undertaking. This is done by analyzing the role played by the concept, in the first place, within Bourbaki's own mathematical output. Likewise, the interaction between Bourbaki's work and the first stages of category theory is analyzed, on the basis of both published texts and personal documents.Several persons have read and criticized earlier drafts of this paper. I thank them all for forcing me to formulate my ideas more simply and convincingly. Special thanks are due to Professors Pierre Cartier (Bures-sur-Yvette), Giorgio Israel (Rome), and Andrée C. Ehresmann (Amiens) for stimulating and illuminating conversations.     

The merits and problems with the concept of projective identification

This paper reviewed the merits of and problems with the concept of projective identification. On the negative side, lack of universal meaning of the term was cited. Personal countertransference receives little regard, while an isomorphic reading of patient feelings may be used to gratify omnipotent symbiotic analyst and patient fantasies. On the positive side, the concept offers a framework that can lead to deeper understanding of difficult therapeutic situations. It helps the analyst process and contain distressing feelings and eschews interpretation that can be destructive to the analytic process. Proper use of projective identification should engage the patient's ego rather than foster passivity and merger wishes. Case material was presented which illustrated problems with and merits of the concept. Personal countertransference, especially therapeutic omnipotence, was shown to receive insufficient attention. The important role of complementarity in projective identification was illustrated in the treatment of depression, a disorder which can offer difficult treatment resistances. In conclusion, the concept should not be used as a justification for analyst omnipotence and avoidance of countertransference responsibility. The concept, however, can lead to a deepening of the analytic situation if it is used with caution and respect for the patient's separateness.