Well-Being’s Relation to Religiosity and Spirituality in Children and Adolescents in Zambia

The relations among dimensions of subjective well-being (i.e., happiness and life satisfaction), spirituality and religiousness were assessed in children (aged 7–12, n = 391) and adolescents (aged 13–19, n = 902) in Zambia. These participants were sampled from schools in both urban and rural regions that represented a relatively wide range of affluence. Participants self-reported their happiness using the Faces Scale and the Subjective Happiness Scale, and their life satisfaction using the Student Life Satisfaction Scale. The surveys were available in English as well as two local languages, and were delivered in classroom settings. To assess religiosity, participants were asked about the frequency that they attended church and about the importance of religion in their life. To assess spirituality, participants were asked about whether they considered themselves to be a spiritual person and about the nature domain of spirituality (e.g., “I feel connected to nature”). Results indicated that age, gender, grade and religiosity were not strong predictors of children’s well-being. However, spirituality accounted for 21 % of the variance in life satisfaction beyond these demographic variables and religiosity, but did not account for additional variance in happiness. The results were similar for adolescents except that the demographic variables were weakly predictive of their life satisfaction, and religiosity was a modest predictor of their happiness. Spirituality predicted variance in happiness and life satisfaction more so among adolescents than among children. These results confirm earlier work showing that spirituality, but not necessarily religiosity, is associated with children’s and adolescents’ well-being.     

Orientations to Happiness and Subjective Well-Being in Chinese Adolescents: The Roles of Prosocial Behavior and Internet Addictive Behavior

Researchers have studied individual’s pursuit of well-being through two perspectives: the eudaimonic perspective and the hedonic perspective. Peterson and his colleagues (2005) introduced their Orientations to Happiness scale, a self-report measure assessing individual’s pursuit of well-being that corresponds to these two perspectives. Specifically, the Life of Meaning subscale is the index of the eudaimonic pursuit; the Life of Pleasure subscale is the index of the hedonic pursuit. Previous research has demonstrated that orientations to happiness are positively associated with individual’s subjective well-being, whereas little research has addressed the mechanisms underlying the associations. Based on goal theory of happiness, the present study investigated how orientations to happiness were associated with subjective well-being by examining the indirect effects of the prosocial behavior and Internet addictive behavior in a sample of Chinese adolescents aged between 13 and 18 (N = 2082). The results showed that: (1) both life of meaning and life of pleasure were positively associated with adolescents’ subjective well-being; (2) prosocial behavior partially mediated the positive association between life of meaning and subjective well-being; and (3) prosocial behavior also partially mediated the positive association between life of pleasure and subjective well-being, whereas Internet addictive behavior undermined the positive association here. The findings shed light on the underlying mechanisms between orientations to happiness and subjective well-being.     

Personality,Positivity and Happiness: A Mediation Analysis Using a Bifactor Model

Recent studies suggested an important role of neuroticism and extraversion facets as incremental predictors of subjective well-being outcomes. Research has shown that positive cognitions mediated the relation between personality traits and well-being. The present study examined the relationship between neuroticism and extraversion, measured as general and group factors, and subjective happiness through a general positivity factor. 770 community participants (69.4 % females; M = 55.34; SD = 16.01) completed personality, satisfaction with life, optimism, self-esteem, and subjective happiness scales. A bifactor model was used to parse general and specific variance components for multifaceted constructs. The general positivity factor completely mediated neuroticism-subjective happiness relationships and overlapped with general neuroticism, whilst it partially mediated extraversion-subjective happiness ones. Other paths to happiness involved cheerfulness and enthusiasm. Assertiveness, activity level and excitement-seeking had a weak relationship with subjective happiness and only through positivity. Gregariousness and friendliness had neither direct nor indirect effects on subjective happiness. Life satisfaction had a twofold role as a component of positivity as well as providing an independent contribution to variance in subjective happiness. In keeping with previous research, neuroticism acted as a sort of general negativity factor. Cheerfulness and extraversion made an incremental contribution to variance in subjective happiness. Our findings support the utility of a multifaceted approach to study pathways from personality to well-being. Theoretical and practical implications for promoting well-being were discussed.     

Subjective Well-Being in Adolescence: The Role of Self-Control,Social Support,Age, Gender,and Familial Crisis

Focusing on adolescents’ subjective well-being, the present study comprised three parts. The first examined the role of two coping mechanisms, self-control and social support, in predicting subjective well-being. The second related to the role of age and gender in predicting adolescents’ subjective well-being. The third raised the question of whether exposure to familial crisis would predict adolescents’ subjective well-being and whether self-control and social support would moderate the link between crisis and adolescents’ subjective well-being. Participants included 380 adolescents ages 13–17 years (M = 15.32, SD = .98; 194 boys, 176 girls, 10 unspecified), from six integrative junior-high and high schools in central Israel. All schools served a heterogeneous Jewish student population. Based on responses to a questionnaire identifying adolescents who reported experiencing a severe life crisis during the last year (e.g., severe illness in family, parent death or separation/divorce), the sample was divided into two groups: exposure to familial crisis (n = 96) and no exposure to familial crisis (n = 284). Outcomes revealed that both self-control and social support predicted adolescents’ subjective well-being. As expected, older adolescents presented lower levels of subjective well-being than younger ones. In contrast to the hypothesis, gender did not predict subjective well-being. Although exposure to crisis did not predict higher negative affect or lower positive affect, an interaction emerged between self-control and crisis in predicting positive affect. Thus, among adolescents who experienced crisis, better self-control skills predicted higher levels of positive affect.     

Well-Being and Generalized Anxiety in Japanese Undergraduates: A Prospective Cohort Study

Psychological well-being is thought to protect against common mental health problems. This study investigated the buffering effects of psychological well-being on the relationships between cognitive vulnerabilities (fear of anxiety and negative beliefs about worry) and GAD symptoms among 297 Japanese undergraduates (female = 62%, age = 18.91 ± 1.61) in a two-wave prospective cohort study. Participants completed the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire for DSM-IV, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, anxiety control subscale of Affective Control Scale, negative belief about worry subscale of Meta-Cognitions Questionnaire, and Nishida’s psychological well-being scale. A moderated regression analysis tested the buffering effect of psychological well-being sub-dimensions on the relationship between cognitive vulnerabilities and generalized anxiety symptoms. Fear of anxiety (β = 0.16, p < 0.01) and negative beliefs about worry (β = 0.16, p < 0.01) at baseline predicted generalized anxiety at follow-up, after controlling for baseline symptoms, and three interaction terms significantly predicted generalized anxiety symptoms. Purpose in life and autonomy buffered the negative relationship between cognitive vulnerabilities and generalized anxiety symptoms. Contrary to the hypothesized relationship, positive relationships with others at baseline facilitated a positive relationship between fear of anxiety and generalized anxiety symptoms. Those results suggested that enhanced Purpose in life and Autonomy dimension of Psychological well-being may be useful in preventing GAD, while the enhanced positive relationship with others dimension of Psychological well-being may facilitate generalized anxiety, as a function of fear of anxiety. In a primary prevention setting, it may be useful to consider the dimensions of Psychological well-being.     

Academic Characteristics of Early Adolescents with Higher Levels of Life Satisfaction

Research related to students’ global life satisfaction and their academic and behavioral functioning has yielded varying findings. Some researchers have suggested the possibility that very high levels of life satisfaction may yield decrements in productivity (Oishi et al. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 346–360 2007). Middle school students (N?=?917) were surveyed regarding their global life satisfaction, school engagement, and academic performance. We evaluated whether the associations were best characterized linearly or non-linearly (i.e., quadratic) to clarify the associations between life satisfaction and the various academic performance variables. Differing from the findings of Oishi et al., our findings failed to reveal support for the hypothesis of a negative quadratic relation between life satisfaction and most of the academic or student engagement outcomes we examined. To the contrary, statistically significant, positive linear relations were observed between life satisfaction and GPA, math standardized test scores as well as cognitive, emotional and behavioral engagement. A linear relation was not observed between life satisfaction and English Language Arts standardized test scores. Consistent with previous research, these findings provide further support that higher levels of life satisfaction are related to higher levels of student engagement and academic performance in early adolescents. Furthermore, the results are consistent with efforts to expand education reforms to incorporate goals related to increasing students’ well-being as well as their academic success.     

A Daily Process Approach to Depict Satisfaction with Life during the Menopausal Transition: Physical (In)activity,Symptoms, and Neuroticism

The main objectives of the present study were (1) to examine the between- and within-person association of physical (in)activity and satisfaction with life (SWL), and (2) to identify relevant top-down and bottom-up influences associated with daily well-being in menopausal women using a daily process approach. As part of a 21-day diary study, community-dwelling middle-aged women (N = 103; age range 40–60 years) wore an accelerometer for the objective assessment of physical activity and completed daily Internet surveys at the end of their day. Multilevel analyses indicated the between-person effects of physical activity on SWL were negligent but that on days when a woman was more physically active than her usual, she reported greater SWL (B = 12.01, p < .05). Sedentary behavior did not demonstrate a between- or within-person association with SWL. Women also experienced reduced SWL on days when greater symptom burden was reported (B = ?2.47, p < .05). Neuroticism also emerged as a top-down personality trait with a negative relation to SWL (B = ?1.47, p < .05). Higher levels of neuroticism predicted reduced daily life satisfaction particularly on days characterized by heightened symptom burden (B = ?0.26, p < .05). In this sample of midlife women, daily physical activity had a positive influence on SWL, whereas daily symptom burden and the personality trait of neuroticism had detrimental consequences on a woman’s daily well-being.     

Cultural Adaptation of New Affective Well-Being Measure in Hindi-Speaking Youth: Scale of Positive and Negative Experience

This study is an attempt to culturally adapt the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE, Diener et al. in Soc Indic Res 97(2):143–156, 2010) in the Indian context. The study was conducted on youth in the age range of 15–24 years (N = 966), and reliability and factorial validity of translated version (in Hindi) of SPANE were calculated. Convergent validity of translated scale was also examined with different measures of well-being (life satisfaction, psychological distress, and happiness) and positive expectations scales (optimism and self-efficacy). Results supported the original two-factor structure of SPANE, and the scale also demonstrated adequate internal consistency. Further analyses revealed structural invariance for scale items across gender, different age groups (adolescents and young adults), different residential areas (urban and rural), and different socioeconomic levels. Results also provided a support for the convergent validity of the Hindi version.     

Effectiveness of Two Cognitive Interventions Promoting Happiness with Video-Based Online Instructions

A 3-month experimental online study examined the short-term and 1 month follow-up effects of regularly practicing one of two cognitive interventions on subjective well-being. Participants were 435 self-selected adults (366 female, 69 male, aged 18–63) randomly assigned to one of three conditions: writing about best possible selves in the future (n = 135), making gratitude lists (n = 150) or writing to-do-lists as a control condition (n = 150). The study was fully self-administered and exercise instructions were given in online videos. Repeated-measures MANOVA revealed that both interventions significantly increased subjective well-being in comparison to the control condition. Effect sizes for the different components of subjective well-being ranged from r = .09–.13 (η² = .01–.02) for the 2 months intervention period. These effects were maintained until the 1-month follow-up. Enjoyment and interest regarding the exercise as indicators of perceived person-intervention-fit moderated the effect; participants of the happiness interventions who perceived a better fit showed greater increases in subjective well-being. These findings confirm previous research on these interventions and encourage further studies on online interventions, especially regarding possibilities to increase participants’ motivation and reduce dropout attrition.     

Children’s and Adolescents’ Conceptions of Happiness at School and Its Relation with Their Own Happiness and Their Academic Performance

Previous research on children’s and adolescents’ well-being at school has been focused on the possible determinants. However, no previous research has analysed children’s and adolescents’ lay-beliefs or conceptualizations of happiness at school. In the present work, we studied children’s (N = 104, 9–10-year-olds) and adolescents’ (N = 113, 15–16-year-olds) conceptualizations of happiness at school and its link with self-reported happiness (assessed 3 months later) and academic achievement (assessed 7 months later). For both samples, seven conceptualizations emerged: happiness as ‘being with friends’, ‘being praised’, ‘getting good grades’, ‘learning’, ‘leisure’, ‘enjoyment’, and ‘helping’. Age differences appeared for the conceptualizations of ‘being friends’ and ‘helping’, as children mentioned significantly more the former and adolescents the latter. No gender differences emerged. For adolescents, the conceptualizations of happiness at school as ‘being with friends’, ‘being praised’, ‘helping’, and not ‘having leisure time’ were positively related to self-reported happiness, which was positively related to academic achievement. For children, none of the conceptualizations were positively related to self-reported happiness. The conceptualization of happiness as ‘learning’ was positively related to academic achievement. The results are discussed in regards to their implications for children’s and adolescents’ well-being at school.     

Decisional Procrastination: Assessing Characterological and Contextual Variables around Indecision

University students (n = 75; M age = 21.4 years old) and community adults (n = 55: M age = 36.6 years old) completed self-reported measures of decisional procrastination (indecision), character (life satisfaction, meaningful life, and need for cognition), context (place attachment, sense of community, and psychological home) and “cross-over” factors relating character and context (self-identity with possessions, people/thing orientation, and clutter), to provide an ecological understanding of persons who claim indecision. Controlling for social desirability tendencies, indecision was negatively related to all character but none of the context variables. Indecision also was related to both person and thing orientation and clutter. Multiple regression analysis indicated that only need for cognition significantly predicted (negatively) indecision among character, context, and cross-over variable sets. Subjective well-being also predicted indecision with low need for cognition among cross-over variables. Taken together, decisional procrastinators reported too much clutter (stuff), interfering with a positive quality of life and related to character over context and cross-over, ecological variables.     

Development and Psychometric Properties of the Self-Representation Questionnaire for Adolescents (SRQA)

Given the lack of validated measures of adolescents’ self-representation, in this paper we present the development process and psychometric properties of a new self-representation questionnaire for adolescents (SRQA), aged 12–16 year old. We examined SRQA factor structure through two studies. In the first study, 32 attributes (16 positive and 16 negative), previously validated in three studies, were administered to 239 adolescents (M = 13.8; SD = 1.28). An exploratory factor analysis showed that 21 attributes (13 positive and 8 negative) were organized in five factors: instrumental, social, emotional, intelligence, and physical appearance. In the second study, these 21 attributes were administered to 232 adolescents (M = 13.8; SD = 1.23). A confirmatory factor analysis supported the SRQA five factor model (Model fit: χ ²/df ratio = 2.392; CFI = .90; RMSEA = .08). Internal consistency was acceptable, ranging between .60 and .85. Girls displayed higher scores in the instrumental and social factors, whereas boys presented higher scores on the physical appearance factor. In line with previous research, results regarding age differences were inconsistent: while in Study 1 results suggested that as, age increases, adolescents’ intelligence self-representation becomes more negative, in Study 2 no age differences were found. Concurrent validity of the SRQA was explored through correlations with the Teacher Report Form, filled out by the adolescents’ homeroom teachers. Results revealed significant negative correlations between two dimensions of self-representation (i.e., instrumental and intelligence) and several dimensions of adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems, providing evidence of concurrent validity for the SRQA.     

The Subjective Assessment of Accomplishment and Positive Relationships: Initial Validation and Correlative and Experimental Evidence for Their Association with Well-Being

In his Authentic Happiness Theory, Seligman describes three orientations that lead to happiness: The life of pleasure, the life of engagement, and the life of meaning (in Authentic happiness, Free Press, New York, 2002). The Orientations to Happiness Questionnaire (OTH; Peterson et al. in J Happiness Stud 6:25–41, 2005) has been developed as a subjective measure for these three orientations. In 2011, Seligman revised his theory and added two new components; i.e., positive relationships and accomplishment. These five are the basic tenets of his well-being theory. The present set of studies describes the construction and initial validation of two short scales for the subjective assessment of the endorsement of positive relationships and accomplishment. Their relation with the OTH-scales is also tested. Study 1 describes the scale construction and provides evidence for the factorial, convergent and divergent validity in three samples (n = 233, n = 336, and n = 125). Study 2 showed that the new scales have high test–retest reliabilities over a period of 1, 3, and 6 months (r = .68–.78), respectively. Study 3 examines the malleability of positive relationships and accomplishment in an intervention study that shows that the scores of both new scales increase in the intervention condition. Overall, the three studies show that the new scales have satisfactory psychometric properties—also when used together with the OTH-scales—and possible applications are discussed.     

Strengths and Subjective Wellbeing in Adolescence: Strength-Based Parenting and the Moderating Effect of Mindset

Recent research suggests that strength-based parenting—the tendency for parents to see and encourage children to use their strengths—relates to lower stress and higher life satisfaction in adolescents. The current study tests whether strength-based parenting, in conjunction with a teenager’s strengths use, influences the teenager’s subjective wellbeing, and whether a growth mindset moderates the relationship between strength-based parenting and strengths use. Three hundred and sixty three adolescents (M _age = 13.74, 51% female) completed questionnaire measures of strength-based parenting, strengths use, subjective wellbeing (life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect), Extraversion, Neuroticism, and two aspects of growth mindset. A hierarchical regression using latent variables found that strengths use and strength-based parenting were both significant independent predictors of subjective wellbeing, over and above the effects of extraversion and neuroticism. A mediation analysis found that strengths use partially mediated the relationship between strength-based parenting and subjective wellbeing. Finally, a novel measure of strengths mindset significantly moderated the relationship between strength-based parenting and strengths use. These results suggest that adolescents who see their parents as strength-based report greater strengths use (especially when they have a growth mindset about their strengths) and greater subjective wellbeing.     

Psychometric Properties of the General Belongingness Scale in Turkish Youth

The purpose of this study was to investigate the reliability and validity of Turkish version of the General Belongingness Scale (GBS; Malone et al. in Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3):311–316, 2012). The adaptation process was carried out with four independent studies, examining the data from two Turkish universities. In study 1, linguistic equivalence of the scale was examined. In study 2, after ensuring the linguistic equivalence, construct, convergent and concurrent validity of the GBS were analyzed. In study 3, predictive validity of the GBS was examined in order to provide additional evidence for the construct validity of the scale. In study 4, the internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the GBS were investigated. The results of this study revealed that both two-factor structure (Acceptance/Inclusion and Rejection/Exclusion) and one-factor structure of the GBS were acceptable. The GBS demonstrated positive relations with social connectedness, social safeness, life satisfaction and subjective happiness while negative relations with loneliness. Results also revealed that extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, life satisfaction and subjective happiness were all positive predictors of the GBS. Finally, the results of the study indicated high levels of internal consistency and test retest reliability. These findings suggest that The GBS is suitable for use among Turkish youth. Suggestions for future research and for the use of the GBS were offered.     

Lifespan Differences in a Self Determination Theory Model of Eudaimonia: A Cross-Sectional Survey of Younger,Middle-Aged,and Older Adults

Despite the myriad physical, cognitive, and social losses that are increasingly common as we age, a growing body of evidence suggests that aging is positively associated with mental health and well-being. The majority of this evidence is in the form of mental health, personality, and subjective/hedonic well-being outcomes; far less is known about lifespan differences in eudaimonic well-being. The objective of this study was to examine differences across three age groups in a relatively recent model of eudaimonia informed by self-determination theory that focuses on the process of living well, but also acknowledges outcomes of that process. In comparison to young (n = 66) and middle-aged adults (n = 66), older adults (n = 66) were especially likely to be living eudaimonically (i.e., to have intrinsic aspirations, goal autonomy, mindfulness, and basic psychological need fulfillment). The effect of age on well-being outcomes was mixed; the oldest group reported the highest levels of life satisfaction (hedonic well-being) but the lowest levels of purpose and growth (eudaimonic well-being) in comparison to their younger counterparts. As predicted by the model, basic psychological need fulfillment mediated the relationship between motivational constructs and well-being outcomes. Furthermore, the model applied equally well to younger, middle-aged, and older adults. Our results are consistent with recent theoretical models emphasizing the socioemotional benefits of aging, as well as potential challenges to well-being that exist in later life.     

Putting the ‘app’ in Happiness: A Randomised Controlled Trial of a Smartphone-Based Mindfulness Intervention to Enhance Wellbeing

Smartphones are revolutionizing approaches to wellbeing investment. Those seeking greater happiness can engage with thousands of downloadable self-help applications instantly, yet their effectiveness remains largely unknown. This investigation explored the viability of delivering a positive psychological intervention in application format to authentic happiness seekers. A smartphone-based randomized-controlled trial was conducted with a diverse self-selecting pool, randomly assigned to engage with an empirically supported mindfulness intervention (n = 57) or a control intervention (n = 64) for 10 days. The study explored smartphone methodology, the importance of empirically based content for wellbeing enhancement and the extent to which user experience related to wellbeing gains. Results of repeated measures ANOVAs showed statistically significant increases in positive affect with a medium effect size and reduced depressive symptoms with a small effect size, although no statistically significant differences in satisfaction with life, flourishing or negative affect were found. No statistically significant gains were observed in the control condition. Ratings of task enjoyment were positively correlated (Pearson’s r) with positive affect increase. Findings support the viability of smartphone-based interventions to significantly enhance elements of wellbeing, underscoring the importance of application content and the role of person-activity fit. This investigation presents implications for happiness seeking strategies in the real world whilst showcasing a dynamic method of intervention delivery that can benefit future research and practice. If the greatest mission of positive psychology is to enhance global flourishing, the potential of smartphone-based interventions may play a vital role.     

Social Support from Family and Friends and Subjective Well-Being of Older African Americans

This study examines the impact of informal social support from family and friends on the well-being of older African Americans. Analyses are based on a nationally representative sample of older African Americans from the National Survey of American Life (n = 837). Three measures of well-being are examined: life satisfaction, happiness and self-esteem. The social support variables include frequency of contact with family and friends, subjective closeness with family and friends, and negative interactions with family. Results indicate that family contact is positively correlated with life satisfaction. Subjective closeness with family is associated with life satisfaction and happiness and both subjective closeness with friends and negative interaction with family are associated with happiness and self-esteem. There are also significant interactions between family closeness and family contact for life satisfaction, as well as friendship closeness and negative interaction with family for happiness. Overall, our study finds that family and friend relationships make unique contributions to the well-being of older African Americans. Qualitative aspects of family and friend support networks (i.e., subjective closeness, negative interactions) are more important than are structural aspects (i.e., frequency of contact). Our analysis verify that relationships with family members can both enhance and be detrimental to well-being. The findings are discussed in relation to prior research on social support and negative interaction and their unique associations with well-being among older African Americans.     

Personality,coping, and school well-being: an investigation of high school students

With a growing interest in well-being as an outcome of schooling, there is an increased need for research on how to enable it in students’ academic lives. This study examined personality and coping strategies as predictors of students’ well-being outcomes at school using structural equation modelling. Students (N?=?328) completed measures of personality and coping strategies, and then approximately 6 months later reported on their satisfaction with school and subjective well-being. Results indicated that, along with personality and sociodemographics, productive coping strategies were associated with school satisfaction and subjective well-being 6 months later. The findings suggest that coping strategies used by adolescents to deal with the stresses of school have important consequences. Interventions to increase school students’ use of productive coping strategies may have meaningful impacts on their well-being.