Enjoyment of Sexualization and Feminism: Relationships with Sexual Self-Schema and Psychosexual Health

Feminists have debated whether enjoyment of sexualization (ES)—when women find sexualized attention from men rewarding—represents empowerment or patriarchal oppression. The purpose of this study was to investigate the psychosexual correlates of ES—sexual self-schema (SSS) and psychosexual health—among heterosexual college women (n?=?754) and men (n?=?389). Among women, ES was associated with a SSS in which women saw themselves as more heterosexual, more attractive, more open to unconventional sex acts, and having greater sentimentality about romantic relationships. Regarding psychosexual health, ES was not linked with general self-esteem but was associated with higher sexual esteem and lower sexual depression. Among men, ES was not related to SSS or psychosexual health. Overall, among women, ES was linked with positive outcomes, and it may represent women conforming to societal norms and using sexualized attention in order to obtain romantic intimacy. Rather than internalized misogyny, ES may represent an open approach to sexuality in which women take advantage of their sexualized position in society for their own empowerment.     

Confronting Sexism: The Role of Relationship Orientation and Gender

This study examined whether relationship orientation was associated positively with confronting sexism and whether confronting sexism was associated positively with competence, self-esteem, and empowerment for women but not men in stereotypically masculine domains. Men and women undergraduates from a United States Midwestern university (n?=?165) were exposed to a sexist statement during a staged, online interaction. Relationship orientation, confronting (i.e., publically rating the sexist statement as problematic and inappropriate), competence, self-esteem, and empowerment were assessed. Consistent with hypotheses, relationship orientation was associated positively with confronting. Additionally, confronting was associated positively with competence, self-esteem, and empowerment for women but not men. Implications for interpersonal confrontation, relationship orientation, and gender differences in response to everyday sexism are discussed.     

Feminists who flaunt it: exploring the enjoyment of sexualization among young feminist women

The phenomenon of women enjoying sexualized male attention has recently been operationalized and found to be related to primarily traditional and sexist beliefs, but some argue that enjoying sexiness can be a feminist act. This study assessed the extent to which 326 self‐identified heterosexual feminist women reported that they enjoyed sexualization and how this related to beliefs about the need for social change. Results indicated that enjoying sexualization was related to a mix of feminist and traditional beliefs. Paradoxically, feminists who enjoyed sexualization felt empowered but were less likely to notice personal social injustice or continued gender inequity. Whether embracing empowered sexuality is related to a more general gender empowerment is discussed.     

顾客授权行为对员工职业成长的影响：自我决定理论视角

聚焦于顾客授权行为这一概念, 以自我决定理论为基础, 分别引入基于组织的自尊作为中介变量和职业中心性作为调节变量, 探讨了顾客授权行为对一线服务员工职业成长的影响机制和作用边界。通过一项三阶段的时间滞后研究设计, 获取了245份有效样本, 结果显示: (1)顾客授权行为对员工职业成长具有显著的正向影响; (2)基于组织的自尊在顾客授权行为与员工职业成长之间起着部分中介作用; (3)职业中心性对顾客授权行为与基于组织的自尊的作用关系具有正向调节作用: 当员工职业中心性水平较高时, 顾客授权行为对基于组织的自尊的正向影响更强; (4)职业中心性进一步调节顾客授权行为通过基于组织的自尊对职业成长的间接影响: 当员工职业中心性水平较高时, 顾客授权行为通过基于组织的自尊对职业成长的正向效应会增强。     

From Helpless Victim to Empowered Survivor:

A group of Cambodian women suffering from Post-traumatic Stress Disorder were treated at the Marjorie Kovler Center for the Rehabilitation of Torture Survivors at Chicago, Illinois. The community-based Kovler Center stresses the philosophy of empowerment. The term "survivor," connoting their strength, is used rather than "victim" in the multi-disciplinary holistic treatments approach. The average number of traumas experienced by the women were 6.5. Symptomatology included memory and concentration problems, low self-esteem, flat affect with detachment, feelings of not living a long life, avoidance of memories and feelings, nightmares, flashbacks, and somatic complaints. The somatic complaints included "heart attacks," headaches, dizziness, fainting and stomachaches. The technique used for treatment was the Oral History method. The women felt empowered and in control when relating their stories. At the same time, with education, verbalization had cathartic benefits. The Oral History serves as a denunciation of their suffering and gives some positive meaning to their experiences as well as brings them together into a support network. Previously forgotten memories began to be uncovered as the traumatic experiences were relived within the context of the Oral History. Trust, acceptance, release of anger and the reforming of a supportive network developed through the use of this technique.     

The impact of obesity surgery and the paradox of control: A qualitative study

In light of the failure of psychological approaches to obesity some clinicians and patients are turning to surgery. The present qualitative study aimed to explore patients' experiences of having obesity surgery and in-depth interviews were carried out with 15 men and women, who had had surgery in the past four years. The data were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). The patients described their experiences in terms of four broad themes: personal weight histories; the decision-making process, which involved general motivations such as worries about health and specific triggers such as symptoms; the impact of surgery on eating behaviour and their relationship with food; the impact of weight loss on health status, self-esteem and relationships with others. The central theme of control permeated all areas of the interviews. The current clinical climate highlights the importance of self-control and patient choice as the path to patient empowerment. Obesity surgery illustrates that in contrast to this perspective, imposed control and limited choice can sometimes paradoxically result in a renewed sense of control.     

Redefining Queer: Women’s Relationships and Identity in an Age of Sexual Fluidity

This paper examines ways some women work to define their sexual identities outside of or between traditional binary categories today. How does one’s own gender and the gender of one’s sexual and relationship partners through the life course affect the creation and maintenance of a sexual identity? Does our current system of sexual categories fit women’s experiences and identities? This study looks at women’s sexual experiences through an examination of female sex store patrons. Using Anthony Giddens theories of the pure relationship and plastic sexuality and ideas from queer theory alongside qualitative data about women’s sexual and relationship experiences, this paper sheds light on relationship and identity choices some American women are making today around their sexuality and provides new views on identity maintenance, gender, and sexual relationships.     

Too Sexualized to be Taken Seriously? Perceptions of a Girl in Childlike vs. Sexualizing Clothing

Girls in the United States are increasingly confronted with a sexualized culture, including sexualized clothing made especially for pre-teen girls. Previous research has shown that when adult women are portrayed as sexualized they are seen as less competent. In the present study we depicted a pre-teen girl in sexualized clothing to determine if similar effects would occur as have been found with depictions of adult women. One hundred sixty two male and female students from a small liberal arts college in the Midwestern U.S. looked at one of three images of a fifth-grade girl (obtained from an internet advertisement and manipulated through computer software) who was presented in either childlike clothing, somewhat sexualized clothing, or definitely sexualized clothing. Level of accomplishment was also manipulated so that the girl was described as either average or above average in accomplishment. Participants then rated the girl on ten different traits. The clothing and accomplishment manipulations significantly affected ratings of the girl’s masculine-stereotyped traits such that the girl who was portrayed as more sexualized and less accomplished was seen as the least intelligent, competent, determined, and capable. In addition, the sexualized girl was seen as perhaps “responsible” for her sexualized clothing in that she was rated relatively low in self-respect and morality. Possible implications of the sexualization of girls are discussed.     

The Wilderness Solo

How does solo wilderness adventure facilitate female empowerment? In this article, several types of solos are defined and described. The solo is a wilderness rite of passage which is currently rising in popularity as an opportunity for personal transformation being offered by outdoor experiential education groups and personal growth institutes. A return to the wilderness during times of personal transition, for guidance and growth and to reconnect with the Spirit, has long been a part of most religions and cultures. Solos described and discussed in this article are the VisionQuest, the reflective solo, the survival skills solo, and a simple self-imposed period of time alone in the wilderness. This article also explains how the author's personal experiences have increased her feelings of self-worth. Trained as a wilderness psychospiritual guide and educator, the author tells of methods used with individuals to expand their awareness and enhance their personal growth. Described are some of the causes for women feeling disempowered within the current male-dominated cultural paradigm. How these wilderness solos serve to empower women by increasing their self-esteem, self-love, self-confidence, and self-reliance will be covered. These strategies are viable, and important, alternatives and additions to a client's personal growth outside of the confines of the therapeutic office.     

The Mediating Role of Contingent Self-Esteem in the Association Between Self-Objectification and Self-Esteem

Objectification theory provides an explanatory conceptual framework for describing women’s lived experiences. By using a social psychological approach, the present study focuses on the mediating role of contingent self-esteem within the objectification framework. Participants were 178 female college-students who took part in a paper-and-pencil survey. We explored the possibility that contingent self-esteem can mediate the relationship between body surveillance and body shame with self-sexualizing behavior and self-esteem. Based on the results, we suggest that self-objectification brings about contingent self-esteem. This mental state can explain changes in self-esteem in turn. We propose that contingent self-esteem can play an essential role in the context of objectification theory.     

Sports competition and its influence on self-esteem development

Competition and its influence upon the adolescent is the primary concern of many recreational agencies. In the past ten years, many youth agencies have de-emphasized competition in their programs because of its negative influence upon self-esteem. There is a need to examine the relationship between competition and self-esteem so that recreational programs can be better designed to utilize competition as a positive factor. A study was undertaken to examine self-esteem in relation to competition in a basketball program. It was found that the coach's assessments of ability and intention of participation are important factors in positive self-esteem development. The social aspects of peer interaction and parent influence also contribute to positive self-esteem. These are minor elements, however, in comparison to the impact of the coach. There needs to be intensive training for coaches on how to develop positive self-esteem and how to deal with the range of participation styles.     

Athlete or Sex Symbol: What Boys Think of Media Representations of Female Athletes

Little research has investigated males?? reactions to non-objectified media images of women, including those that depict women in instrumental activities like playing a sport. Using a survey methodology, this study examined U.S. adolescent boys?? open-ended responses to images of performance athletes, sexualized athletes, and sexualized models. Participants were 104 adolescent boys from California (ages 12?C17, primarily European-American). They remarked on the performance athletes?? physical competence and focused on the athletic context depicted in the photograph. In contrast, participants focused on the physical appearance and attractiveness of the sexualized athletes and sexualized models. Overall, findings suggest that performance images of women evoke instrumental evaluations of women from male viewers, while sexualized images induce objectified appraisals.     

Treatment Outcomes and Perceived Benefits: A Qualitative and Quantitative Assessment of a Women's Substance Abuse Treatment Program

This study examines outcomes of a women's substance abuse treatment program based on empowerment, choice, and client/therapist collaboration. The program was assessed through qualitative and quantitative research methods. The article includes extensive quotes from six client interviews as well as data from pre-post surveys of 50 women in the treatment program. Results show that the women felt they benefited from the collaborative treatment approach. Benefits to the women included feeling more empowered and learning to take responsibility for their lives. The importance of taking a broad view of recovery that includes ongoing evaluation of positive changes in various areas of the clients' lives is discussed.     

A Psychosocial Resource Impairment Model Explaining Partner Violence and Distress: Moderating Role of Income

This study examines the role of income in a psychosocial resource impairment model that explains partner violence and distress. Using data from a nationally representative sample, we test whether psychosocial resources of social support and self-esteem operate differently in four income groups (poor, “working”-poor, middle and upper-income). Structural equation modeling shows that among women considered working-poor, low self-esteem is relevant for the process through which violence becomes linked to distress. Women of upper-income appear distinct with negative interactions serving as sole mediator of violence and distress. Other findings indicate impaired support may mediate the violence and distress relation for women, regardless of income. Overall, income partially moderates the impact of partner violence on distress, suggesting social contexts should be considered when examining the effects of violence.     

Bodies at Menarche: Stories of Shame, Concealment, and Sexual Maturation

This study examines the embodied nature of menarche through a focus on themes of shame, concealment, and sexual maturation. Using a narrative analysis, it examines menarche stories of 155 undergraduates in the Pacific Northwest, USA, aged 21 years and younger, who started their periods between 1999 and 2003 and who grew up in a culture with changing attitudes and practices about women and the body. Unlike findings from past studies and those with older participants, women reported more positive experiences of menarche. While these data provide evidence for changing attitudes and practices associated with menarche, they may also reflect cultural changes that increasingly commodify the female body and encourage girls to identify the maturing female body as an asset.     

Gender Roles and Self-Esteem: A Consideration of Environmental Factors

Much empirical research has examined the psychological well-being of individuals with varying gender role orientations. This research has typically shown masculinity to be a strong correlate of self-esteem and femininity to be relatively unrelated to self-esteem. This research has often failed to consider the relative environmental influences impacting this process. This study examines the relationships of masculinity and femininity to self-esteem and environmental presses for each of these sets of behavioral characteristics. Results indicate a stronger press for masculine characteristics than feminine characteristics. The person-environment interaction suggests that a masculine environment may place women who are low in masculinity at particular risk for low self-esteem. Implications for both research and practice are discussed.     

Factors of Empowerment for Women in Recovery from Substance Use

Empowerment is an interdisciplinary construct heavily grounded in the theories of community psychology. Although empowerment has a strong theoretical foundation, few context-specific quantitative measures have been designed to evaluate empowerment for specific populations. The present study explored the factor structure of a modified empowerment scale with a cross-sectional sample of 296 women in recovery from substance use who lived in recovery homes located throughout the United States. Results from an exploratory factor analysis identified three factors of psychological empowerment which were closely related to previous conceptualizations of psychological empowerment: self-perception, resource knowledge and participation. Further analyses demonstrated a hierarchical relationship among the three factors, with resource knowledge predicting participation when controlling for self-perception. Finally, a correlational analysis demonstrated the initial construct validity of each factor, as each factor of empowerment was significantly and positively related to self-esteem. Implications for the application of psychological empowerment theory and research are discussed.     

Delineating the Structural Precursors and Cognitive Consequences of Personal Powerlessness: the Filipino Woman's Experience

Adopting a structural-cognitive perspective and path analysis, this study demonstrates that personal powerlessness generates sequelae of maladaptive cognitions, namely, low self-esteem, low success expectancies and a weak motivation for self-improvement. Despite adverse structural and natural forces, Bicolano women exhibited self-efficacy, high self-esteem, and strong propensity for self-improvement, albeit expressing low success expectancies. These constructive cognitions can be attributed to the women's strong achievement ethic, high educational attainment, and supportive kinship system. These factors also compensate for the depressive effects of low success expectancies on the motivation for self-improvement. Implications for empowerment strategies and cognitive literature are discussed.     

Women's responses to stereotypical media portrayals: An fMRI study of sexualized and domestic images of women

Women tend to be portrayed in a sexualized or domestic manner in mainstream advertising; importantly this trend holds not only for ads targeting men but also for those targeting women themselves. Such a focus on sexualized portrayals in particular may not seem strategic given a wealth of evidence suggesting that women evaluate these portrayals quite negatively. Consumer attitudes toward domestic portrayals are more mixed but, unsurprisingly, vary according to how much a woman identifies as traditional. If female consumers do not evaluate these common portrayals positively, why might they persist? Past work suggests a disconnect between reported attitudes toward general visual sexual stimuli and physiological and neural responses; therefore, it is plausible that neural responses to stereotypical female portrayals in advertising may be at odds with reported attitudes and may have a bigger impact on consumer behavior. The current study exposed women to sexualized, domestic, and control images in a functional magnetic resonance imaging scanner as an initial test of this idea. We found that participants reported liking both domestic and control images more than sexualized images. In contrast, they showed more activity in regions associated with reward and arousal (ventral striatum and amygdala, respectively) while viewing sexualized images relative to both control and domestic images. Surprisingly, ventral striatum response to sexualized ads was stronger for women who endorsed traditional attitudes than those who reported less traditional attitudes. These results suggest that despite reporting negative attitudes toward sexualized portrayals, women may in fact have a favorable response to these images. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.