Differences in personality between American and English children

One thousand and ninety-one children between the ages of 9 and 15 yr from three Tennessee schools completed the Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and an Impulsiveness Inventory. The American children scored significantly higher on the N, P, E and Imp scales and lower on the L scale. Common trends were noted on age and sex between the American personality norms and the English norms. The results were discussed in terms of the differences in crime rate and lifestyle between the two countries. Both questionnaires were seen as useful measures of personality for children in the U.S.     

Differences in mathematical reasoning between typically achieving and gifted children

Mathematical giftedness refers to mastery in a specific mathematical domain at an earlier than expected age. The present study examined which cognitive processes accounted for differences in mathematical reasoning between gifted children (MRG) and their typically achieving peers (TA). Naming speed, phonological awareness, short-term memory, executive functioning, and working memory were examined in 51 children aged approximately 7 years. A series of stepwise regression models, using a contrast variable to capture differences in mathematical reasoning between MRG and TA children, were created to examine which cognitive domains accounted for differences in mathematical reasoning. Short-term memory (r²?=?.08) and visual-spatial working memory (r²?=?.39) emerged as the only cognitive predictors within a model that included gender, age, and fluid intelligence. This model captured all of the variance distinguishing mathematics reasoning between MRG and TA children, explaining an overall contribution of 70% of the variance in mathematical reasoning.     

Differences between children and adults in the recognition of enjoyment smiles

The authors investigated the differences between 8-year-olds (n=80) and adults (n=80) in recognition of felt versus faked enjoyment smiles by using a newly developed picture set that is based on the Facial Action Coding System. The authors tested the effect of different facial action units (AUs) on judgments of smile authenticity. Multiple regression showed that children base their judgment on AU intensity of both mouth and eyes, with relatively little distinction between the Duchenne marker (AU6 or "cheek raiser") and a different voluntary muscle that has a similar effect on eye aperture (AU7 or "lid tightener"). Adults discriminate well between AU6 and AU7 and seem to use eye-mouth discrepancy as a major cue of authenticity. Bared-teeth smiles (involving AU25) are particularly salient to both groups. The authors propose and discuss an initial developmental model of the smile recognition process.     

Perceiving arousal and valence in facial expressions: Differences between children and adults

Arousal and valence have long been studied as the two primary dimensions for the perception of emotional stimuli such as facial expressions. Prior correlational studies that tested emotion perception along these dimensions found broad similarities between adults and children. However, few studies looked for direct differences between children and adults in these dimensions beyond correlation. We tested 9-year-old children and adults on rating positive and negative facial stimuli based on emotional arousal and valence. Despite high significant correlations between children’s and adults’ ratings, our findings also showed significant differences between children and adults in terms of rating values: Children rated all expressions as significantly more positive than adults in valence. Children also rated positive emotions as more arousing than adults. Our results show that although perception of facial emotions along arousal and valence follows similar patterns in children and adults, some differences in ratings persist, and vary by emotion type.     

Differences between children with attention deficit disorder,children with specific learning disabilities,and normal children

The study investigated the power of five measures to differentiate between children with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), children with Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD), and normal children. The measures employed were the Conners Parent Questionnaire (CPQ), the Conners Teacher Questionnaire (CTQ), the Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT), the Porteus Mazes Test (PMT), and the Jumbled Numbers Game (JNG). The results indicated that the Conners Parent Questionnaire, Conners Teacher Questionnaire, Matching Familiar Figures Test, and the Porteus Mazes Test significantly discriminated between groups. The Conners Questionnaires were able to discriminate between all three groups and the MFFT and PMT were able to discriminate between ADD and normal children. A discriminant analysis indicated that the CPQ was the best predictor of group membership, followed in order by the CTQ PMT, and MFFT.     

Differences in attitudes towards inclusion between parents of children with and without disabilities

IntroductionInclusion is among the greatest challenges facing educational systems throughout the world today. Parents’ attitudes play a key role in the successful implementation of inclusion. Therefore, there is a growing interest in comparing the attitudes towards inclusion among parents of children with and without disabilities.ObjectiveThe current study was set out to assess if there are differences in attitudes towards inclusion between parents of children with and without disabilities.MethodThe sample consisted of 332 parents (127 parents of children with disabilities and 205 parents of children without disabilities). All children attended general education primary schools. Participants completed anonymously the Greek version of Attitude Survey Towards Inclusive Education – Parents (de Boer et al., 2012a, b).ResultsThe findings showed no significant differences in attitudes towards inclusion between parents of children with and without disabilities. However, significant differences were found in parents’ attitudes towards inclusion based on their familiarity with a disabled person and the type of disabilities (congenital or acquired).ConclusionThese findings highlight the need to take into consideration parents’ and children's factors during the development of interventions to change attitudes towards inclusion.     

Differences in brain information transmission between gifted and normal children during scientific hypothesis generation

The purpose of the present study was to investigate differences in neural information transmission between gifted and normal children involved in scientific hypothesis generation. To investigate changes in the amount of information transmission, the children's averaged-cross mutual information (A-CMI) of EEGs was estimated during their generation of scientific hypotheses. We recorded EEG from 25 gifted and 25 age-matched normal children using 16 electrodes on each subject's scalp. To generate hypotheses, the children were asked to observe 20 "quail eggs" that gave rise to questions. After observation, they were asked to generate a scientific hypothesis--a tentative causal explanation for the questions evoked. The results of this study revealed several distinguishing brain activities between gifted and normal children during hypothesis generation. In contrast to normal children, gifted children showed increased A-CMI values between the left temporal and central, between the left temporal and parietal, and between the left central and parietal locations while generating a hypothesis. These results suggested that gifted children more efficiently distribute the cognitive resources essential to cope with hypothesis generation.     

Differences in brain information transmission between gifted and normal children during scientific hypothesis generation

The purpose of the present study was to investigate differences in neural information transmission between gifted and normal children involved in scientific hypothesis generation. To investigate changes in the amount of information transmission, the children’s averaged-cross mutual information (A-CMI) of EEGs was estimated during their generation of scientific hypotheses. We recorded EEG from 25 gifted and 25 age-matched normal children using 16 electrodes on each subject’s scalp. To generate hypotheses, the children were asked to observe 20 “quail eggs” that gave rise to questions. After observation, they were asked to generate a scientific hypothesis—a tentative causal explanation for the questions evoked. The results of this study revealed several distinguishing brain activities between gifted and normal children during hypothesis generation. In contrast to normal children, gifted children showed increased A-CMI values between the left temporal and central, between the left temporal and parietal, and between the left central and parietal locations while generating a hypothesis. These results suggested that gifted children more efficiently distribute the cognitive resources essential to cope with hypothesis generation.     

Differences in lingual vibrotactile threshold shifts during magnitude-estimation scaling between normal-speaking children and children with articulation problems.

The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in function of the tactile sensory system between groups of normal-speaking children and children with articulation problems. This task was accomplished by studying possible tactile threshold shifts occurring during magnitude-estimation scaling of vibratory stimuli presented to the dorsal surface of the tongue. 10 normal-speaking children (M age = 7.8 yr.) and 9 children with articulation problems (M age = 7.5 yr.) participated. The normal-speaking children and articulatory defective children performed differently on the magnitude-estimation scaling task in which threshold was allowed to return to baseline after each stimulus presentation. These two groups of children also showed dissimilar threshold shifts for the suprathreshold intensities employed in the magnitude-estimation scaling.     

Interactional dynamics between teen-age leaders and followers in the classroom

The interaction within 10 informal teen-age groups in classrooms were observed by two independent, nonparticipant observers. Every group in the study had a distinguishable leader. The hypothesis was that the hidden or “illegitimate” communication reflects basic assumptions, such as dependece on a leader or fight/flight movements within the group. The principal findings were the following: (a) The teen-age leaders dominated both the psychological space and the physical space. The leaders were treated differently by, and behaves differently toward, the followers. The pattern was found to suit an “object relations model”, in which the leader is used by the followers to serve as a container for unpleasant feelings and to express forbidden opinions. (b) The group movements in all 10 groups seemed to continously change during the school day and no group was either principally dependent or principally fighting/flighting. W.R. Bion's findings (Experiences in Groups, New York, Basic Books, 1961) on group movements in adult groups, such as therapy groups and professional organizations, seem to be valid for the hidden interaction in teen-age groups in the classroom.     

Differences and similarities in event recall and suggestibility between children and adults in Germany and the United States

Children (5-6 year olds, 7-8 year olds, 9-10 year olds) and adults from Germany and the United States were shown a brief video of a theft. One week later, participants were asked to give a free narrative of an observed event (free recall), followed either by sets of misleading or unbiased questions, and finally they were given a three-choice recognition question for each queried item. German participants of all ages had higher levels of correct free recall than did American participants. American adults and 9-10 year olds gave more correct responses to the open-ended unbiased questions than did their German counterparts. Germans of all ages made more correct responses to the misleading questions, whereas national differences, favoring the Germans, for incorrect response to misleading questions were restricted to the 5-6 year olds. National differences were interpreted as reflecting possible differences in strategic abilities, exposure to formal instruction, and the degree to which children experience self-directed, autonomous learning opportunities.     

Differences in memory functioning between children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and/or focal epilepsy

Prior research has shown that attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and epilepsy are frequently comorbid and that both disorders are associated with various attention and memory problems. Nonetheless, limited research has been conducted comparing the two disorders in one sample to determine unique versus shared deficits. Hence, we investigated differences in working memory (WM) and short-term and delayed recall between children with ADHD, focal epilepsy of mixed foci, comorbid ADHD/epilepsy and controls. Participants were compared on the Core subtests and the Picture Locations subtest of the Children’s Memory Scale (CMS). Results indicated that children with ADHD displayed intact verbal WM and long-term memory (LTM), as well as intact performance on most aspects of short-term memory (STM). They performed worse than controls on Numbers Forward and Picture Locations, suggesting problems with focused attention and simple span for visual-spatial material. Conversely, children with epilepsy displayed poor focused attention and STM regardless of the modality assessed, which affected encoding into LTM. The only loss over time was found for passages (Stories). WM was intact. Children with comorbid ADHD/epilepsy displayed focused attention and STM/LTM problems consistent with both disorders, having the lowest scores across the four groups. Hence, focused attention and visual-spatial span appear to be affected in both disorders, whereas additional STM/encoding problems are specific to epilepsy. Children with comorbid ADHD/epilepsy have deficits consistent with both disorders, with slight additive effects. This study suggests that attention and memory testing should be a regular part of the evaluation of children with epilepsy and ADHD.     

Shame,guilt, blaming,and anger: Differences between children in Japan and the US

Recent research and theory on shame and guilt has highlighted the “dark side to shame” in motivating harmful behavior. Although researchers recognize that cultural differences in shame exist, few studies have examined such differences. In this study of 130 fourth and fifth graders from the United States and 118 from Japan, cultural differences in anger, shame, guilt, and externalization of blame were examined. Consistent with predictions, compared to American children, Japanese children were more prone to experience shame and guilt and less likely to externalize blame. However, they also were more likely to experience anger. Directly, and indirectly through blaming, shame had much greater effects on anger among American than Japanese children. Whereas the effects were positive and significant among American children, they were negative and nonsignificant among Japanese children. Among Japanese children, it was guilt, rather than shame, that was related to anger, and in a negative manner. Findings suggest that in anger, the “dark side to shame” but also the more positive side to guilt, are moderated by cultural context.     

Differences in school behavior and achievement between children from intact, reconstituted, and single-parent families.

Differences in school behavior and achievement between students from intact, reconstituted, and single-parent families were analyzed. Students from intact two-parent families had fewer absences and tardies, higher grade point averages, and fewer negative and more positive teacher behavioral ratings than did those from reconstituted and single-parent families.     

Differences and interactions between stresses

This paper reviews a number of experiments in which different stresses have been applied to comparable subjects performing similar tasks. It is argued that, since the effects of the stresses are different, it is not legitimate to think of a single mechanism mediating reaction to stress. Experiments on the simultaneous application of two stresses show that the effects of heat appear to be independent of those of noise and sleeplessness, while the latter two conditions partially cancel each other. It is therefore argued that noise and sleeplessness affect the same mechanism in opposite directions, while heat affects some other mechanism. Tentatively, noise is regarded as over-arousing and lack of sleep as under-arousing.     

Combinatorics and probability: six- to ten-year-olds reliably predict whether a relation will occur

Young children are able to judge which of two possibilities is more likely to occur when these possibilities are characterized by a simple property, like color (“Is it more likely to draw a red chip or a blue chip?”). Here we ask whether they can do so when the possibilities concern a relation between simple properties (“Is it more likely to draw two chips of the same color or two different colored chips?”). Three studies show that from the age of six children are able to predict the occurrence of a relation on the basis of its probability, and that from the age of nine their performance reaches adult levels. These results corroborate the theory of naive extensional reasoning, and are inconsistent with the hypothesis that children need the help of instruction to reason correctly about relations.     

Differences and similarities between children,mothers, and teachers as informants on disruptive child behavior

Prevalence rates of disruptive child behaviors, based on structured psychiatric interviews, are presented for samples of clinic-referred prepubertal boys at two sites to investigate differences and similarities among reports of the behaviors from children, parents, and teachers. Children reported significantly less hyperactive/inattentive and oppositional behaviors than either parents or teachers. In contrast, children did not differ from parents or teachers in their report on the prevalence of more serious conduct problems. These results were well replicated across two sites, despite the fact that there were significant differences between the sites in the level of hyperactive/inattentive child behaviors and conduct problems. The ranking of parents' and teachers' reported prevalence of specific child behavior problems in each of the three domains of disruptive behavior was strikingly similar. With one exception, the concordance between the prevalence ranking based on the children's reports was lower than that based on adults' reports, Children's reports on their own behavior did not predict various child handicaps 1 year later as well as did adults' reports. The results are discussed in relation to the usefulness of certain child behaviors in symptom lists for diagnostic purposes; the reliability of children's reports on their own behavior; and the possible reasons why prevalence rankings, as perceived by adults, are so similar.