Variable pay as a risky choice: Determinants of the relative attractiveness of incentive plans

This paper presents an experimental investigation of risk preferences in the context of compensation. In five studies, participants indicated their preference between a job offering a fixed salary and one having a lower certain component but the potential to earn a higher amount contingent on performance. Results demonstrate that people are not generally risk averse in this context, as found in earlier research, but rather that risk preferences depend on the nature of the variable pay plan. In particular, in both between- and within-subjects designs, variable pay was preferred more often when incentives were based on individual rather than collective (team or organizational) performance, and participants were more optimistic about the likelihood of receiving incentives as individuals. The effects of individual differences such as self-efficacy and preference for group work were contingent on the format of the variable pay plan. Implications for designing compensation plans and employee recruitment and retention are discussed.     

CONTINGENCIES IN THE EFFECTS OF PAY RANGE ON ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS

The degree of pay spread can influence many organizational level outcomes (e.g., workforce productivity and organizational performance), but empirical studies are inconsistent about the directionality of the effect. We argue that it is not simply the width of the pay range but also the factors responsible for the width that explain the effects of the pay range on employee and organizational outcomes. We expect that when wider pay ranges are attributable to the use of performance-based pay, the effects of the pay range on performance are positive, but narrower pay ranges attributable to performance-based pay reduce this effect substantially. By contrast, wider pay ranges attributable to politically based pay should have negative effects on performance, and this effect should be weakened when the pay ranges are narrower. Data from a sample of motor carriers generally support our predictions. Although wider pay ranges have positive effects, the results reveal a complex pattern of relationships among the basis of pay allocations and pay range width on the one hand and workforce productivity and organizational performance on the other. Implications for future compensation and strategic human resource management research are discussed.     

包容性领导与下属揭发意愿的关系:一个被调节的中介效应模型

通过332组在职MBA学员样本数据分析验证了包容性领导对下属揭发意愿的影响机制,结果表明:(1)包容性领导显著正向影响下属的揭发意愿;(2)组织支持感在包容性领导与揭发意愿之间起完全中介作用;(3)上司组织代表性调节包容性领导与下属组织支持感之间的关系,上司的组织代表性越高,二者间的正向关系越强;(4)上司组织代表性调节组织支持感对包容性领导与下属揭发意愿之间关系的中介作用。     

Understanding Pay Satisfaction: The Limits of a Compensation System Implementation

Although a common organizational intervention, research investigating the impact of compensation system implementation on employee outcomes is limited. As one type of intervention, job evaluation usually includes substantial employee participation in order to improve employee pay satisfaction. This assumption, however, is rarely validated. To address this weakness, the present study examines, in a quasi-experimental field study at a manufacturing firm (N = 168), the extent to which participation in the job evaluation process during a compensation system implementation influences pay satisfaction. Both longitudinal and between-group comparisons failed to show a participation effect on pay satisfaction, casting doubt on the organizational development benefits of this common intervention.     

自主选择偏好：表现、机制与应用

自主选择偏好指当面临自主选择或委托他人选择时, 人们总是偏好自主选择, 即使为此付出代价也在所不惜。自主选择偏好可能有过度自信、控制幻觉和模糊厌恶的原因, 但更多可能源于自主选择本身承载了某种内在价值。奖赏系统(纹状体、内侧前额叶)的神经活动是其关键的神经基础, 同时自主选择也受认知调控系统的调节。未来研究应在社会情景下揭示自主选择偏好的作用机制和调控因素, 并探索它在群体间的平衡机制, 以增进个体幸福和群体利益。     

组织创新文化、组织文化强度与员工创新行为：多层线性模型的分析

本研究通过对某大型电网公司156家供电局的10856名员工的问卷调查,检验了组织创新文化、组织文化强度（即员工价值观一致性）与员工创新行为的关系。多层线性分析（HLM）结果表明：（1）组织创新文化与员工创新行为有正向关联;（2）组织文化强度与员工创新行为有负向关联;但是（3）组织文化强度却可以增强创新文化与员工创新行为的正向关系。研究提出,引入组织文化的内容属性和强度属性的交互作用,可以更精确地理解组织文化与个体创新行为的关系。     

Quality of the Execution of Corporate Safety Policies and Employee Safety Outcomes: Assessing the Moderating Role of Supervisor Safety Support and the Mediating Role of Employee Safety Control

To reduce the risk of injury and promote job safety, many organizations have attempted to establish safety policies. This study examined the presumed benefits of safety policies and the roles of two organizational variables (supervisor safety support and employee safety control) on safety outcomes and satisfaction with the company. Results showed that quality of the execution of corporate safety policies, supervisor safety support, and employee safety control play critical roles in predicting both injury incidence and satisfaction with the company. These findings highlight the importance of integrating both organizational safety policies and relevant organizational constructs to improve organizational safety.     

追踪研究在组织行为学中的应用

追踪研究是一种通过引入时滞, 以探索变量动态变化趋势和变量之间相互关系的调查研究方法。近年来, 在组织行为学中, 追踪研究越来越受到学者们的关注, 追踪研究成果也在逐渐增加, 但是大多数研究者尤其是国内研究者, 对追踪研究尚缺乏全面正确的认识。追踪研究设计可以依照重复测量之间的时间间隔长短进行分类, 不同的类型对应不同的样本量、调查方式和统计分析方法, 未来可以拓展追踪研究在团队和领导力、组织文化和变革以及员工激励等方面的应用, 或开展跨文化的追踪研究。     

组织氛围研究：概念测量、理论基础及评价展望

组织氛围是员工对组织环境的主观知觉。文章在回顾组织氛围研究起源、总结归纳组织氛围定义的基础上, 给出了组织氛围的新定义。组织氛围有个体、团队和组织三个分析水平, 分别对应着不同的测量方法。组织氛围与组织文化既存在区别又密不可分。组织氛围的形成机制及可能的影响因素常用社会信息加工、社会交互作用、吸引选择磨合、涌现和意义建构等理论来解释。未来研究应进一步加强对组织氛围概念、研究方法、影响因素等方面的深入探讨, 拓展组织氛围的跨文化及其差异研究。     

The effects of pay level on organization‐based self‐esteem and performance: A field study

Most compensation managers implicitly assume (or perhaps hope) that high pay levels will maintain and enhance future performance. To date, this assumption has been largely untested. Given the importance of pay level and the large expense that pay represents to most organizations, understanding how and why pay level influences the behaviour of employees in organizations is an important question. The purpose of this study is to examine the motivational effects of pay level on employee performance. To examine these issues, we collected field study data from a variety of sources, at three different times, and assessed the effects of employee pay level on subsequent self‐esteem and performance. Specifically, we hypothesized that the effects of pay level on performance would be mediated by pay level effects on organization‐based self‐esteem. We base this hypothesis on the premise that level of pay within an organization communicates a sense of how much the organization values an employee and thus affects employee organization‐based self‐esteem which, in turn, enhances job performance. After controlling for organization tenure, and previous pay change, results supported a mediated model that suggests that pay level affects employee self‐esteem, which in turn, affects employee performance.     

伦理型领导、工具主义伦理气氛与员工不道德行为：内部人身份感知的调节作用

通过对379名企业员工的问卷调查,探讨伦理型领导对员工不道德行为的影响机制。结果发现：伦理型领导与工具主义伦理气氛显著负相关;组织伦理气氛在伦理型领导与不道德行为之间起部分中介作用;内部人身份感知调节了组织伦理气氛在伦理型领导与不道德行为关系的中介作用。内部人身份感知水平越高,组织伦理气氛的中介作用越强。     

The Person/Environment Dynamics of Employee Empowerment: An Organizational Culture Analysis

Using an organizational culture framework, this case study examines the critical preconditions necessary for employee empowerment and highlights how the multiple cultures within one public bureaucracy differently impacted their implementation. SERVE, a large human service organization, initiated an employee empowerment program that contradicted and thus collided with many elements of its overall organizational culture. Despite the best intentions of the organizational leaders, upper management support, and opportunities for participatory decision making, the organization could not foster the critical preconditions needed for employee empowerment. Leaders had difficulty expanding the employees' power and promoting member inclusion. Concurrently, most employees rejected these new opportunities for control and distrusted the leader's intentions. Yet, despite the widespread rejection of these empowerment initiatives, most employees described their work lives as empowering. The role the local site subculture played in promoting employee empowerment is examined. We discuss how a localized (vs. system-wide) empowerment endeavor may be a more appropriate and feasible focus for public bureaucracies seeking to initiate greater staff empowerment. Particular attention is paid to the interaction between individuals and their environments, and how this interaction affects the empowerment process.     

Dissecting Organizational Commitment and Its Relationship with Employee Behavior

In theory, organizational commitment should have a moderately strong relationship with employee performance, but empirical studies have generally found only a weak relationship. We present a new model of the organizational commitment process in which different components of organizational commitment have different relationships with employee behaviors. We argue that the empirical relationship between organizational commitment and performance is weak for two reasons: First, one component of organizational commitment, the desire to remain a member of the organization, often has a weak, uncertain relationship with performance. Second, organizational commitment does not include perceived rewards for high performance, a variable that is a significant determinant of performance. The results, based on a sample of 246 men and women from diverse industries and occupations, were consistent with these explanations.     

Should I stay or should I go?: Penalties for briefly de-prioritizing work or childcare

We examined penalties against individuals who temporarily de-prioritize their employee or parenting role. Experiment 1 (N = 488) utilized vignettes depicting a mother/father who briefly left their child with a babysitter to engage in work/self-care/did not leave (control). Both mothers and fathers were viewed as less parentally competent, likeable, dedicated to their family (and putting their child at greater risk) when they very briefly de-prioritized their caregiving role by leaving their child for either reason, relative to controls. Experiment 2 (N = 494) utilized vignettes depicting a female/male employee who briefly left work to engage in childcare/self-care/did not leave (control). Both male and female employees were rated as less professionally competent, likeable, dedicated to their work and deserving of organizational rewards (and more deserving of organizational penalties, and putting their organization at greater risk) when they very briefly de-prioritized their employee role by leaving work for either reason, compared to controls. However, employees who left for self-care were viewed more negatively than those who left to engage in childcare. Unexpectedly, results did not reveal target gender differences; they were also largely unaffected by participant gender. This suggests that parents and employees face penalties when they must de-prioritize either of these important roles for even very short periods. Implications for well-being, work-life balance, and productivity are discussed.     

Individual differences in perception of appropriate pay differentials in the U.S.A. and Sweden

The present research investigates the relationships between demographic characteristics and employees' perceptions of appropriate pay-differentials (APD's). In order to investigate this relationship, we examined organizations in two different countries with different social philosophies. The dependent variable (APD's) is defined as what is felt and/or perceived by the individual to be the appropriate pay-differentials among positions with different responsibilities and at different organizational levels. Two different subject groups were used: 137 salaried employees from an automotive engineering company in the U.S.A., and 107 salaried employees from an engineering company in Sweden. Questionnaires constructed in English and Swedish included: (1) questions about individual demographics; (2) job factors; and (3) perception of appropriate pay-differentials using eight organizational charts. Results indicated that the influence of social philosophy, as expressed by organizational socialization processes, was limited in scope. Individual differences associated with employees' perceptions of appropriate pay-differentials should be taken into account when determining pay and compensation policies. These considerations may encourage employee participation in decision making and lead to better organizational outcomes.deceased.     

Organizational Politics and Deviance: Exploring the Role of Political Skill

Building on social exchange theory, this study examines the relationship between perceptions of organizational politics and employee performance and interpersonal skills. We hypothesized that perceptions of organizational politics create an imbalance in the exchange relationship between employee and organization, which leads to organizational deviance. We also hypothesized that supervisors may attempt to rebalance the exchange relationship by providing lower performance and interpersonal skills ratings. Finally, we suggest that politically skilled employees avoid an increase in negative ratings. The present study demonstrates that perceptions of organizational politics may lead to negative employee behaviors and reduced supervisors’ ratings in an effort to rebalance the exchange relationship. In addition, politically skilled employees may avoid increased negative ratings when politics perceptions are high.     

工作情境中的人格研究：回顾与展望

人格研究对任何层次的组织行为都产生了深远的影响,大量元分析都显示了人格特质对工作动机、工作绩效、员工幸福感、压力与应对、团队效能、冲突与谈判、权利与政治、领导以及反组织行为等组织行为指标具有良好的预测力。但是人格研究在组织中的应用因为人格测验的效度和被试在测验中“作假”而饱受争议和批评。人格理论的拓展及其跨文化的适用性,人格特质的负面作用以及结合组织情境的动态研究都是今后研究值得关注和探索的方向。     

Employee Happiness: Why We Should Care

Albert Schweitzer once stated that “success is not the key to happiness, happiness is the key to success.” Despite this widespread belief, employee happiness is often perceived by organizations as an insubstantial topic, irrelevant to bottom-line outcomes. Equally as problematic, past investigations have primarily utilized other positive emotion variables as a proxy for happiness, thus convoluting the relationships between happiness and work outcomes. As such, taking a scientist-practitioner approach, the present study sought to address the need to: (a) directly measure employees’ happiness, (b) link employee happiness to outcomes of organizational interest, and (c) assess the impact that organizational psychosocial factors have in decreasing employee happiness levels. Therefore, by measuring employee happiness, job demands, and organizational outcomes through a two-wave full panel design, the present study provided evidence for employee happiness’s ability to significantly mediate the relationship between job demands and organizational outcomes. Explicitly, a high level of job demands decreased employee happiness, which subsequently decreased employees’ organizational commitment, task performance, and contextual performance, while increasing turnover intentions and counterproductive work behaviors. These results carry significant theoretical and practical implications. Future QOL (Quality of Life) and organizational research would benefit from building on the present findings and establishing a nomological net of employee happiness. Additionally, practitioners have the opportunity to utilize this evidence to demonstrate the impact that employee happiness has on organizationally-relevant outcomes and the role that organizations can have in fostering employee happiness.

     

DIFFERENT WRONGS,DIFFERENT REMEDIES? REACTIONS TO ORGANIZATIONAL REMEDIES AFTER PROCEDURAL AND INTERACTIONAL INJUSTICE

To alleviate the negative effects of workplace unfairness and resulting conflict, organizations can take remedial action to atone for a perceived injustice. We argue that the effectiveness of organizational remedies may depend on the match between type of injustice perceived and type of remedy offered. Specifically, based on the multiple needs model of justice ( Cropanzano, Byrne, Bobocel, & Rupp, 2001 ), we expect procedural injustice to be particularly associated with preference for instrumental remedies that address the need for control. On the other hand, interactional injustice should be particularly associated with preference for punitive remedies that address the need for meaning. Confirming this hypothesis, a field study involving recently terminated employees found that procedural injustice was positively associated with preference for an instrumental remedy (monetary compensation) and interactional injustice was positively associated with preference for a punitive remedy (disciplinary action against those involved in the termination). Further supporting the hypothesis, a laboratory experiment manipulating the unfairness of performance feedback found greater preference for an instrumental remedy relative to a punitive remedy following a procedural injustice than following an interactional injustice. In discussing these results, we present a taxonomy of organizational remedies as they relate to the multiple needs model of justice. Practical implications are discussed.     

The Cross‐Level Mediating Effect of Psychological Capital on the Organizational Innovation Climate–Employee Innovative Behavior Relationship

Organizational innovation climates have been found to be effective predictors of employee creativity and organizational innovation. As such, climate assessments provide a basis for useful organizational interventions in enhancing creativity and innovation. Researchers now call for better articulation of the motivational mechanisms that link social context to employee innovation. In responding to the above call, this study found that employee positive psychological capital (PsyCap) is more influential than organizational innovation climate on employee innovative behavior. With a large sample (N  = 781) from 16 organizations and a cross‐level analysis, we examined the relationship between organizational innovation climate and employee innovative behavior with employee PsyCap as mediator. The results showed that both organizational innovation climate and employee PsyCap significantly affect employee innovative behavior, and more importantly, employee PsyCap fully mediates this relationship. The innovation journey is a challenging and risky one with many frustrations and discouraging moments from idea generation to idea implementation. The research results presented here imply that to be innovatively effective, organizations are advised to manage both social (organizational innovation climate) and psychological (PsyCap) resources of employees in enhancing employee innovative behavior. Other theoretic and practical implications are discussed.