Cultural–geographical differences in the occurrence of child physical abuse? A meta‐analysis of global prevalence

Our comprehensive meta‐analysis combined prevalence figures of child physical abuse reported in 111 studies, including 168 independent samples with a total of 9,698,801 participants. The overall estimated prevalence was 3/1000 for studies using informants and 226/1000 for studies using self‐report measures of child physical abuse, with no apparent gender differences. Methodological factors partly explained the vast variation of self‐reported prevalence rates in individual studies. The highest prevalence rates were found for studies using a broad definition of child physical abuse, studies measuring physical abuse over the longest period of 0–18 years, studies using college samples, studies in which adults served as respondents, and studies using more questions on physical abuse. Cultural–geographical factors did not seem to affect prevalence rates of physical abuse, which may be partly due to procedural factors. More crosscultural research on physical abuse is badly needed, especially in Africa and South America. We conclude that child physical abuse is a widespread, global phenomenon affecting the lives of millions of children all over the world, which is in sharp contrast with the United Nation's Convention on the Rights of the Child.     

Toddlers' responsive imitation predicts preschool-age conscience

Imitation has long been considered a mechanism for the development of conscience. Despite the central role of imitation in theories of moral internalization, the prediction from imitation to moral behavior has not been tested using an individual differences approach. In a longitudinal design, we examined whether individual differences in toddlers' responsive imitation predict preschool-age conscience. Mothers modeled actions for their children to imitate, and both matching behavior and motivation were observed at 14 and 22 months of age. We also measured preschool conscience by observing children's internalized conduct and guilt at ages 33 and 45 months. Imitation measures consistently predicted conscience variables. These relations were strengthened by aggregation across measures and times of assessment. Motivation and matching behavior each contributed independent variance in predicting preschool-age conscience. Results are consistent with the claim that responsive imitation reflects a general receptive stance to parents' guidance, and with both neopsychoanalytic and social cognitive views of imitation's importance in early moral development.     

Changes in letter processing in beginning readers

Letter pairs were tachistoscopically presented to children from grades 1, 2 and 6 (85.6, 99.4, and 147.8 months of age, respectively). They were required to determine whether the letters had a same name by pressing one of two response keys as fast as possible. Also a letter detection task was presented where letter matching was either based on physical or name characteristics. The name match in both tasks was slower than the match of letters which shared the same visual form. The name-physical match differences changed significantly as a function of grade level. Shifts in latency differences over grades can be considered as a fundamental correlate of reading ability. Children increasingly employ strategies of processing based on nominal cues and become efficient in extracting the invariant features of letters amongst irrelevant variations such as type face.     

Improving perception of letters and visual structure of language.

Information about letters and the physical structure of language printed in Roman characters was given to children beginning to read. Experimental investigations coupled three alternative graphic modes of printing upper- and lower-case letters with an instructional intervention termed "Alpha-Beta" which provides practice in letter sorting, matching of letters, associative matching, and memory matching. In respect to graphics, Mode A letters were in standard alphabet form. Mode B provided standard letters with each backed by a unique half-tone (Visually Stippled Alphabet); Mode C provided standard letters with each backed by a unique visual texture (Visually Patterned Alphabet). Pre-posttest change in reading readiness was measured using the Metropolitan Readiness Test. In the first study 224 English-speaking 5- to 6-yr.-old children were tested. In the second there were 158 Spanish-speaking girls and boys 6 to 7 years old. It was predicted that Alpha-Beta intervention involving visually patterned alphabet would lead to the greatest increases in readiness scores. This is confirmed in both studies for children low in reading readiness preexperiment. Children high in reading readiness are less affected. The second experiment involved Spanish-speaking children and investigated intervention by Alpha-Beta against a no-intervention control. This confirms the value of Alpha-Beta per se. Possible explanations for the improvements are identified.     

The Effect of Physical Activity on Children With ADHD: A Quantitative Review of the Literature

Research on the effects of physical activity on children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is promising, yet no attempt has been made to integrate current findings using meta-analytic techniques. Using a meta-regression, the present study examined the effectives of physical activity for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder on a number of cognitive, behavioral, and emotional outcomes. From 20 empirical studies, 164 effect sizes quantifying the effectiveness of physical activity for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were extracted from 22 independent samples. Results indicated an overall moderate-to-large effect for physical activity on children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, with a significant effect for emotion/mood. Limitations of the study, future directions, and implications for school professionals are discussed.     

How well do measures of inhibition and other executive functions discriminate between children with ADHD and controls?

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the usefulness of Barkley's (1997a) model of inhibition and executive functioning in describing the deficits associated with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Besides group differences, the present study addressed the question of independent effects of inhibition and the other executive functions in discriminating between children with ADHD and controls and how well, in terms of sensitivity and specificity, these measures can classify the children into the correct group. The results showed that children with ADHD differed significantly from controls with regard to measures of inhibition as well as all other executive function measures, except repetition of hand movements. In logistic regression models, three different measures tapping inhibition, working memory and emotion regulation were shown to be significant independent predictors of group membership. The sensitivity for these three variables as a set was 76.2, the specificity was 90.5, with a total of 86% of the sample correctly classified. When excluding the parental rating of emotion regulation, the overall classification rate decreased some, but was still relatively high in comparison with previous studies within this area of research.     

EDITORIAL

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the usefulness of Barkley’s (1997a) model of inhibition and executive functioning in describing the deficits associated with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Besides group differences, the present study addressed the question of independent effects of inhibition and the other executive functions in discriminating between children with ADHD and controls and how well, in terms of sensitivity and specificity, these measures can classify the children into the correct group. The results showed that children with ADHD differed significantly from controls with regard to measures of inhibition as well as all other executive function measures, except repetition of hand movements. In logistic regression models, three different measures tapping inhibition, working memory and emotion regulation were shown to be significant independent predictors of group membership. The sensitivity for these three variables as a set was 76.2, the specificity was 90.5, with a total of 86% of the sample correctly classified. When excluding the parental rating of emotion regulation, the overall classification rate decreased some, but was still relatively high in comparison with previous studies within this area of research.     

Can one written word mean many things? Prereaders' assumptions about the stability of written words' meanings

Results of three experiments confirmed previous findings that in a moving word task, prereaders 3 to 5 years of age judge as if the meaning of a written word changes when it moves from a matching to a nonmatching toy (e.g., when the word "dog" moves from a dog to a boat). We explore under what circumstances children make such errors, we identify new conditions under which children were more likely correctly to treat written words' meanings as stable: when the word was placed alongside a nonmatching toy without having been alongside a matching toy previously, when two words were moved from a matching toy to a nonmatching toy, and when children were asked to change what the print said. Under these conditions, children more frequently assumed that physical forms had stable meanings as they do with other forms of external representation.     

How to teach a pigeon to maximize overall reinforcement rate

In two experiments deviations from matching earned higher overall reinforcement rates than did matching. In Experiment 1 response proportions were calculated over a 360-response moving average, updated with each response. Response proportions that differed from the nominal reinforcement proportions, by a criterion that was gradually increased, were eligible for reinforcement. Response proportions that did not differ from matching were not eligible for reinforcement. When the deviation requirement was relatively small, the contingency proved to be effective. However, there was a limit as to how far response proportions could be pushed from matching. Consequently, when the deviation requirement was large, overall reinforcement rate decreased and pecking was eventually extinguished. In Experiment 2 a discriminative stimulus was added to the procedure. The houselight was correlated with the relationship between response proportions and the nominal (programmed) reinforcement proportions. When the difference between response and reinforcement proportions met the deviation requirement, the light was white and responses were eligible for reinforcement. When the difference between response and reinforcement proportions failed to exceed the deviation requirement, the light was blue and responses were not eligible for reinforcement. With the addition of the light, it proved to be possible to shape deviations from matching without any apparent limit. Thus, in Experiment 2 overall reinforcement rate predicted choice proportions and relative reinforcement rate did not. In contrast, in previous experiments on the relationship between matching and overall reinforcement maximization, relative reinforcement rate was usually the better predictor of responding. The results show that whether overall or relative reinforcement rate better predicts choice proportions may in part be determined by stimulus conditions.     

Do children need to learn to collaborate?: The effect of age and age differences on collaborative recall

We used a collaborative recall task to explore the nature and consequences of children's interaction with another child at the same or different age. Ninety-six children memorised word lists for recall. In a first condition children recalled collaboratively: in a pair with another child. In a second condition children recalled words independently (this made possible the creation of “nominal” pairs for comparison). Pairs were either composed of two 7-year-olds, two 9-year-olds, or a 7- and a 9-year-old. Older pairs, like adults, showed a net negative effect of collaborative recall. However, younger children showed no effects of collaboration. Analyses of the different contributions offered by each child in a pair, and of measures of social dominance suggest that older children dominate social aspects of interaction and recall when paired with a younger child. We argue that younger children may lack full awareness of the role of interaction as a forum for the co-construction of knowledge.     

Self-determination and functional persuasion to encourage physical activity

This research advances a novel approach to promoting physical activity, based on the principle of functional matching in persuasion, and the self-concordance (SC) of people's motivations for physical activity. We propose that SC establishes a positive or negative orientation toward the challenge inherent in physical activity, and that the maximum yield of participation will be achieved by communications that appeal to each orientation. In two studies, we compared how messages emphasizing challenge versus available social support would influence recipients’ self-reported practices of physical activity and attitudes toward a physical activity setting. As hypothesized, these messages had differential effects for recipients whose pursuit of physical activity varied in SC, such that favorable outcomes were more reliably associated with challenge-oriented messages among respondents higher in SC versus support-oriented messages among respondents lower in SC. The findings suggest the merits of using self-regulatory, compared with object- or personality-based, constructs and measures to indicate psychological functions of ongoing health-related behaviors.     

IS COGNITIVE COMPLEXITY LOQUACITY? A REPLY TO POWERS,JORDAN, AND STREET

Powers, Jordan, and Street recently presented evidence suggesting that assessments of cognitive complexity obtained from a widely used procedure may be significantly influenced by general loquacity and verbal complexity. This report argues that Powers et al.'s results are an artifact of the procedures employed, and presents additional evidence bearing on the relationship between cognitive complexity and general verbal abilities. In one study, conceptually independent assessments of cognitive complexity, loquacity, and writing speed were obtained from a group of college students. Cognitive complexity was found generally unrelated to both writing speed and loquacity. In a second set of studies, independent assessments of interpersonal cognitive complexity and two indices of general verbal abilities were obtained from three diverse populations (college students, mothers of young children, and grade-school children). Only low and generally nonsignificant relationships were found between cognitive complexity scores and the measures of verbal facility. These results are discussed within the framework of a construct! vist theory of cognitive development.     

Reprint of “Relationship between BMI,waist circumference,physical activity and probable developmental coordination disorder over time”

BackgroundCross-sectional studies have shown that children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) are less likely to be physically active and have excess weight gain. However, longitudinal studies examining the relationship between DCD and measures of body composition (BMI and waist circumference) over time are lacking. It is not known if sex and physical activity affect the relationship between DCD and measures of body composition over time.Objective(1) To examine if BMI and waist circumference in children with and without probable DCD (pDCD) remain constant over time or change as children age, and whether this relationship varies by sex. (2) To examine if differences in physical activity between children with and without pDCD account for differences in BMI and waist circumference over time.MethodsPhysical Health Activity Study Team (PHAST) data were used for this longitudinal analysis. At baseline, a total of 2,278 (pDCD = 103) children aged 9–10 years were included in the analysis. The total follow-up period was five years. Mixed-effects modeling was used to estimate change in body composition measures in children over time.ResultsChildren with pDCD have higher BMI and waist circumference compared to typically developing children, and this difference increased over the study period. The relationship between pDCD and BMI over time also varied by sex. A similar trend was observed for waist circumference. Boys with pDCD were found to have a more rapid increase in BMI and waist circumference compared to girls with pDCD. Physical activity had neither a mediating nor a moderating effect on the relationship between pDCD and measures of body composition. However, physical activity was independently and negatively associated with measures of body composition.ConclusionspDCD is associated with higher body mass and waist circumference, both important risk factors for cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and psychological problems and other health conditions.     

Attention Processes in Children with Movement Difficulties, Reading Difficulties or Both

Reading difficulties (RD) and movement difficulties (MD) co-occur more often in clinical populations than expected for independent disorders. In this study, we investigated the pattern of association between attentional processes, RD and MD in a population of 9 year old school children. Children were screened to identify index groups with RD, MD or both, plus a control group. These groups were then tested on a battery of cognitive attention assessments (TEA-Ch). Results confirmed that the occurrence of RD and MD was greater than would be predicted for independent disorders. Additionally, children with MD, whether or not combined with RD, had poor performance on all attention measures when compared with typically developing children. Children with RD only, were no poorer on measures of attention than typical children. The results are discussed with respect to approaches proposed to account for the co-occurrence of disorders.     

Physical performance in relation to age, sex, birth order, social class, and sports activities of preschool children

Physical performance of 1,194 preschool children, ages 43 to 84 mo. was related to characteristics of physical growth, cognitive performance, and social variables. Correlations between measures of physical growth and physical performance and between motor and cognitive performance were positive and significant. Physical fitness, body coordination, and manual dexterity improved across age groups. Significant sex differences were found, although boys exceeded on some measures and girls on others. Children with older sisters or brothers performed better than only or first-born children, and children who participated in sports activities outside school outperformed those who did not.     

Relationships between perceptual and conceptual mediational systems in young children

Children aged 48–77 months were afforded experience in either color oddity or nominal class sorting prior to a transfer task testing the ability to apply the oddity rule (“which one doesn't belong”) to three picture arrays where solution was based on nominal class membership. The youngest children in the sample did not benefit from either perceptual rule experience or nominal sorting experience. Subsequent age groups benefited first from the nominal sorting treatment, then from both perceptual rule and nominal sorting activities, and finally the older children did not require priming in either the perceptual or nominal domain for success on the transfer task.     

Development and validation of the theory of planned behavior questionnaire in physical activity

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is one of the main theoretical models in the study of the different variables, which influence in the practise of physical activity. The aim in this study was to develop a questionnaire based on TPB in physical activity context providing evidence for the validity of the obtained measures. The instrumental project included three independent studies. The first study entailed the construction and qualitative assessment of the items. In the second study, the analysis of factorial structure was performed by means of exploratory measures, and it showed that the reliability of measures was adequate. The third study provided evidence on the dimensionality of the scale. The confirmatory factorial analysis guaranteed the stability of factorial structure proposed by the TPB and provided evidence for the internal validity of the inventory. Moreover, this study provided evidence of its external validity.     

Relations of age with changes in self-efficacy and physical self-concept in preadolescents participating in a physical activity intervention during afterschool care

An inference from Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that preadolescents of different ages who participate in a physical activity intervention may respond differently on measures of their physical self and self-efficacy, so a field investigation was conducted to assess effects. In a sample of 105 children ages 8 to 12 yr. (42% boys, overall M(age) = 10.1 yr., SD = 0.9), participation in a physical activity intervention during afterschool care, based on social cognitive theory and incorporating instruction in self-management and self-regulatory skills, was associated with significant improvements in measures of exercise-related self-efficacy, perceived physical appearance, and physical self-concept over 12 wk. Analyses suggested, however, no difference in changes on these factors was associated with participants' age or children being in either the concrete operations or formal operations stage of cognitive development. After replication, implications for design of physical activity interventions for preadolescents were suggested.     

Physical activity participation and physical aggression in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BackgroundAggressive behaviour is a substantial behavioural problem in children and adolescents. This review systematically summarises the current evidence on the relationship between physical activity participation and aggressive behaviour and quantifies the effects of physical activity interventions on aggression in children and adolescents.MethodsStudies were identified through a search of five electronic databases (PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, MEDLINE, CINAHL and Web of Science) with combinations of three groups of keywords. Two independent reviewers screened and extracted data from the individual studies. The reporting quality and publication bias were assessed. The relationship between physical activity participation and aggressive behaviour was systematically summarized. Data (effect sizes) were pooled to investigate the effects of physical activity interventions on aggressive behaviour. A moderator meta-analysis was performed to identify potential moderators of the effects of physical activity interventions on aggressive behaviour.ResultsNineteen studies met the inclusion criteria. The relationship between physical activity participation and aggressive behaviour was mixed. A significant reduction in aggressive behaviour was observed after physical activity interventions (k = 8, SMD = −0.53, 95% CI [−0.27, −0.79], p < 0.001). The moderator meta-analysis showed that physical activity interventions involving team-based physical activity had greater effects than those involving individual-based physical activity (β = 0.42, SE = 0.18, p = 0.02). In addition, interventions involving physical activity alone were more effective in reducing aggressive behaviour than those that combined physical activity with other activities such as a philosophy course (β = −0.63, SE = 0.11, p < 0.001).ConclusionThe current meta-analysis presents evidence for the effect of physical activity interventions on aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents. Physical activity–only interventions involving team-based physical activity might be used for preventing or reducing aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents. Possible mechanisms, methodological strengths and weaknesses, implications, and suggestions for future studies were discussed.