Psychological and social consequences of HIV exposure: Homosexuals in southern california

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to identify the psychological and social consequences experienced by apparently healthy homosexual men who learn that they have positive results on the HIV antibody test, but who have not yet developed AIDS or ARC. Employing a census survey of the male membership of three homophile organizations in a Southern California county (n=1905), 30 HIV positives and 55 negatives completed a biographical questionnaire, the IPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire, the IPAT Depression Scale, and the Coping Strategies Inventory. Results indicate that HIV positives show considerable disorganization after hearing test results, have clinically high levels of anxiety (n=10), and clinically high levels of depression (n=14) when compared to the normative samples. Positives also reported pervasive changes in their sexual activity (n=30), and experienced negative consequences in social (n=15) and occupational functioning (n=10). Twelve subjects reported suicidal ideation after they heard the results of their testing, with one subject reporting a suicide attempt. The methodological limitations of the study were examined, with an emphasis on the limitations of the survey method. Speculations to account for the reported behaviors were discussed.     

"HIV testing is so gay": the role of masculine gender role conformity in HIV testing among men who have sex with men

Men who have sex with men (MSM) account for more than half of all new cases of HIV infection in the United States. Yet, many MSM are unaware of their HIV serostatus. Consistent with research indicating that gender role conformity impacts health behaviors, this study examined how masculine norms may influence HIV testing among MSM in the United States. Data from 170 self-identified MSM (age M = 46.45, SD = 12.18) of self-reported negative or unknown HIV serostatus living in the United States were used in this study. About half (52%) of participants reported that they had been tested for HIV within the past 12 months; 48% reported that they had not. Logistic regression was used to examine the association between domains of masculine gender role conformity and HIV testing within the past 12 months, controlling for number of sexual partners in the last 12 months. The masculine norm of heterosexual self-presentation (i.e., desire to be perceived by others as heterosexual) was negatively associated with HIV testing (B = -0.74, SE B = 0.36, O.R. = 0.48, 95% CI [0.24, 0.96]), after controlling for the effect of number of sexual partners. Psychologists and other health professionals may remain mindful of potential implications of HIV testing among MSM, including potential for MSM to view HIV testing as an "outing" procedure.     

AIDS Stigma and Contact With Persons With AIDS: Effects of Direct and Vicarious Contact.1

This paper examines the relationship between AIDS-related stigma and (a) direct, personal contact with people with AIDS (PWAs), and (b) vicarious contact—through mass media—with a public figure with AIDS or HIV. Data are presented from a 2-wave national telephone survey with a probability sample of US. adults (ns = 538 at Wave 1; 382 at Wave 2) and an oversample of Black Americans (ns = 607 and 420, respectively). Direct contact with a PWA was associated with less support for coercive AIDS policies, less blame for PWAs, and less avoidance of PWAs. Vicarious contact–operationalized as the self-reported impact of Earvin “Magic” Johnson's disclosure of his HIV infection–appeared to have its greatest impact among respondents who previously had manifested high levels of stigma. In that group, levels of stigma diminished somewhat to the extent that respondents reported having been strongly influenced by Johnson's announcement.     

Reaction time slowing in adults with HIV: results of a meta-analysis using brinley plots

A meta-analysis in the form of Brinley plots was conducted on the mean reaction times of HIV+ and HIV- groups. HIV+ reaction times were regressed on HIV- reaction times across 122 task conditions from 29 studies, producing a highly linear function (r(2) = .94), with a slope b = 1.039, which was not significantly different than b = 1.00. Asymptomatic and symptomatic HIV+ reaction times were also separately regressed on HIV- reaction times across 67 task conditions from 13 studies. Both functions were highly linear (r(2) = .97 and.90 respectively), with slopes of 1.034 and 1.117 respectively. Only the slope for symptomatic HIV+ groups was significantly larger than b = 1.00, suggesting a modest generalized slowing of cognition in these adults.     

Development and validation of the HIV Medication Readiness Scale

Excellent medication adherence (>95%) is required for optimal HIV treatment success. This study aimed to develop and validate a brief scale to assess psychological readiness for successfully starting and adhering to HIV medications. HIV-positive men and women (N = 142) from an HIV outpatient clinic completed the proposed HIV Medication Readiness Scale (HMRS) prior to starting HIV medications. The 10-item HMRS demonstrated high internal consistency (alpha = .90), test-retest reliability (r = .83), and sensitivity to change following a standardized 4-session psychoeducational intervention designed to increase readiness for successful adherence. Predictive validity was supported by higher readiness scores on the day starting HIV medications, predicting higher treatment adherence at 1-month follow-up. The HMRS is a brief, easy-to-use, clinically relevant tool that can assist in identifying people living with HIV at high risk of nonadherence, who might benefit from tailored readiness counseling prior to initiating HIV medications.     

我国运动员退役意识与心理状态的定量分析

基于运动员退役过程理论,对我国运动员的退役意识和生活心理状态进行定量分析,旨在探索运动员在退役过程中的意识与心理状态变化。通过对789名运动员（现役运动员540人,退役运动员249人）的退役意识和生活心理状态调查,结果发现运动员的退役意识主要反映在运动员角色和退役准备的认知方面,当运动员角色的认知下降时,退役准备的认知会上升;在生活心理状态的评估方面,有退役想法的运动员要比无退役想法的运动员差;现役运动员的心理状态与退役运动员的心理状态在表现形式上不一样,主要表现为现役运动员反映了较高的生活焦虑,而退役运动员反映了较高的孤独感;分析进一步发现,运动员在退役过程中普遍感到缺乏社会支持。基于以上这些发现,研究从社会心理学角度,讨论了我国运动员退役的意识与心理现状     

Association of race and color with mean IQ across nations

This study investigated the correlation of both race and skin color in the distribution of mean IQ for 129 countries with primarily indigenous populations. Skin color correlated most highly with mean IQ across the Caucasoid countries (r = -.86), somewhat less across the Mongoloid countries (r = -.66), and nonsignificantly across the Negroid countries (r = .06). When the Negroid and Caucasoid countries were combined, both race and skin color yielded high correlations with IQ (r = .87, -.95, respectively). When the Negroid and Mongoloid countries were combined, both race and skin color yielded high correlations with IQ (r = .91, -.91, respectively). When Caucasoid and Mongoloid countries were combined, skin color yielded a high correlation, but race did not correlate significantly with IQ. The greater importance of Negroid race was regarded as congruent with the 1998 generalization of Jensen that the genetic distance between Mongoloids and Caucasoid is less than the genetic distance of these two groups from Negroid.     

Dyadic interracial interactions: a meta-analysis

This meta-analysis examined over 40 years of research on interracial interactions by exploring 4 types of outcomes: explicit attitudes toward interaction partners, participants' self-reports of their own emotional state, nonverbal or observed behavior, and objective measures of performance. Data were collected from 108 samples (N = 12,463) comparing dyadic interracial and same-race interactions, predominantly featuring Black and White Americans. Effect sizes were small: Participants in same-race dyads tended to express marginally more positive attitudes about their partners (r = .07), reported feeling less negative affect (r = .10), showed more friendly nonverbal behavior (r = .09), and scored higher on performance measures (r = .07) than those in interracial dyads. Effect sizes also showed substantial heterogeneity, and further analyses indicated that intersectional, contextual, and relational factors moderated these outcomes. For example, when members of a dyad were the same sex, differences between interracial and same-race dyads in negative affect were reduced. Structured interactions led to more egalitarian performance outcomes than did free-form interactions, but the effects of interaction structure on nonverbal behavior depended on participant gender. Furthermore, benefits of intergroup contact were apparent: Differences in emotional state across dyadic racial composition disappeared in longer term interactions, and racial minorities, who often have greater experience with intergroup contact, experienced less negative affect in interracial interactions than did majority group members. Finally, there was a significant historical trend toward more egalitarian outcomes across dyadic racial composition for explicit attitudes and for nonverbal behavior; however, participants' emotional responses and performance have remained consistent.     

Use of traditional medicine by HIV-infected individuals in South Africa in the era of antiretroviral therapy

As antiretroviral therapy (ART) becomes more available in African countries, the potential for interaction with traditional medicines becomes more important. We carried out a cross-sectional survey among individuals with moderate or advanced HIV disease attending a workplace clinic providing ART in South Africa to determine prevalence of traditional medicine use, source, recommended products and costs. Among 44 clinic attendees (100% male, median age 42 years, 30 taking ART), 37 (84%) reported ever using traditional medicines, 25 obtained from a healer or herbalist, eight from their own fields and four from a pharmacy. Fourteen of the 44 (32%) were currently using traditional medicines, most frequently African potato (9/14) and Aloe vera (3/14). Seven out of 30 persons taking ART (23%) reported currently using traditional medicines. Participants spent 4 - 27 pounds per month on traditional medicines. Traditional medicine use is common among individuals with moderate and advanced HIV disease. Concomitant use with ART has the potential for drug interactions and should be discussed routinely in ART counselling. Further work is warranted to investigate whether commonly used traditional medicines interact with ART in vivo.     

HIV-specific social support predicts less sexual risk behavior in gay male couples.

Gay male couples (N = 47) completed self-administered questionnaires at 2 time points (6 months apart) regarding their levels of general and HIV-specific social support and sexual behavior. HIV-specific social support measured partner support pertaining to HIV risk behavior. The sexual-risk-behavior outcome encapsulated monogamy, serostatus, and unprotected anal sex for each partner. The authors used an analytic approach that maintained the couple as the unit of analysis. General social support was an inconsistent predictor of HIV risk behavior. However, couples that reported greater levels of HIV-specific social support engaged in less HIV risk behavior at each time point as well as longitudinally. This study demonstrated the utility of measuring HIV-specific social support and its predictive ability related to HIV risk behavior.     

Why is muscularity sexy? Tests of the fitness indicator hypothesis

Evolutionary scientists propose that exaggerated secondary sexual characteristics are cues of genes that increase offspring viability or reproductive success. In six studies the hypothesis that muscularity is one such cue is tested. As predicted, women rate muscular men as sexier, more physically dominant and volatile, and less committed to their mates than nonmuscular men. Consistent with the inverted-U hypothesis of masculine traits, men with moderate muscularity are rated most attractive. Consistent with past research on fitness cues, across two measures, women indicate that their most recent short-term sex partners were more muscular than their other sex partners (ds = .36, .47). Across three studies, when controlling for other characteristics (e.g., body fat), muscular men rate their bodies as sexier to women (partial rs = .49-.62) and report more lifetime sex partners (partial rs = .20-.27), short-term partners (partial rs = .25-.28), and more affairs with mated women (partial r = .28).     

Brief counseling to reduce AIDS risk in intravenous drug users and their sexual partners: Preliminary results

Intravenous drug users (N = 88) and their sexual partners (N = 45) were randomly assigned to either a brief counseling intervention or an information-brochure only condition (aimed at reducing behavioral risk for HIV infection). At 10 day follow-up, intravenous drug users exposed to brief counseling were more knowledgeable about risk behaviors, and reported higher levels of self-efficacy and communication skill, and more frequent use of condoms and sterilisation of needles. At 90 day follow-up, intravenous drug users were more accepting of guidelines to reduce sex-related risk and reported greater self-efficacy in relation to drugs. Sexual partners who received brief counseling showed a small reduction in unprotected sex (at 90-day follow-up), while those receiving brochures were slightly less likely to use condoms. Methodological problems of the study are discussed.     

HIV/AIDS prevention support resourcing with family and peers: University student perspectives

This study explored how students construct family and peers as resources for their HIV prevention. The participants were 20 education students from a South African technology education university (female = 60%, black = 85%; age range = 18 to 24). They completed a semi-structured interview on their access to family and peers talking about HIV/AIDS prevention in the context of perceived cultural influences. The data was thematically analysed using open-coding. Findings suggest that students shared information about HIV/AIDS prevention with peers, and less so with family. They perceived cultural taboos around sex talk to be a barrier to open discussion of HIV/ADS. Students may need to acquire strategies to negotiate HIV/AIDS prevention approaches with family in the context of culture.     

Exercise, pain, perceived family support, and quality of life in Korean patients with ankylosing spondylitis

Relations of habitual exercise and pain, perceived family support, and the quality of life in patients with functional class II for ankylosing spondylitis were explored. In a cross-sectional study perceived pain, family support, and quality of life were compared for 30 patients (23 women and 7 men whose mean age was 28.3 yr.+/-8.6 yr.) practicing exercise regularly and for 38 sedentary patients (31 women and 7 men whose mean age was 27.2+/-6.7 yr.). Exercising patients reported significantly lower pain, greater perceived family support, and increased quality of life than their sedentary peers. Pain ratings were significantly negatively correlated with the quality of life in both groups (r = -.26 in exercisers and r = -.50 in sedentary patients) and control group's perceived family support was significantly correlated .44 with quality of life. These results encourage further study of the associations of habitual exercise with perceived pain, family support, and quality of life.     

Randomized controlled trial of brief interventions to reduce college students' drinking and risky sex

The present study tested the proposition that an intervention to reduce alcohol use among college students will also reduce their risky sexual behavior. In a randomized controlled trial, 154 heavy-drinking, predominantly White, heterosexual college students at behavioral risk for infection with HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases were assigned to receive no intervention or a two-session, in-person, motivational interviewing-based intervention focused on (a) reducing alcohol risk behavior, (b) reducing HIV risk behavior, or (c) reducing both alcohol and HIV risk behavior. Three-month retrospective assessments of alcohol use and sexual behavior were conducted at intake and at 3-, 6-, 9-, 12-, and 15-month follow-up appointments. During follow-up, participants who received the single-focus alcohol risk-reduction intervention drank less frequently and consumed fewer drinks per drinking day as compared with no-intervention control participants, but did not differ from control participants in their frequency of intercourse without a condom or number of sexual partners. Participants who received the single-focus HIV risk-reduction intervention evidenced fewer unprotected sex events during follow-up, as compared with control participants. The number of sexual partners reported during follow-up did not differ by condition. Effects of the interventions did not vary significantly over time and were not moderated by participant gender. Results suggest that intervening to reduce alcohol use may not reduce risky sexual behavior among nonminority college students, but that a brief motivational intervention targeting HIV risk behavior may have utility for reducing the frequency of unprotected sex in this population.     

Young People,Sexuality, and HIV Prevention Within Christian Faith Communities in South Africa: A Cross-Sectional Survey

Faith communities exert a powerful influence on the life of their members, and studies are needed about how they may be able to influence young people’s attitudes regarding sexuality and HIV prevention. Data were collected through a self-administered questionnaire from young people (811), aged 15–24 years, affiliated to the Roman Catholic Church, the Lutheran Church and the Assemblies of God. The majority of participants perceived themselves at risk of HIV infection (53 %). Premarital sexual abstinence was the most frequently (88 %) reported prevention message, followed by faithfulness (23 %), HIV testing (18 %) and condom use (17 %). Furthermore, religious affiliation was associated with education on sexuality and HIV in youth groups, with better information given to members of the Lutheran and Catholic churches. Faith communities need to strengthen their capacity to educate young people in a more holistic way about sexuality and HIV prevention.     

Parenting,Family Loneliness,and Peer Functioning in Boys with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

The goal of the present study was to consider the associations between family functioning (parenting and family loneliness) and peer functioning in a sample of boys with ADHD (N = 110) and their mothers (N = 108) and fathers (N = 53). Results indicated that higher paternal warmth was associated with more peer acceptance, less peer rejection, and less problematic social behavior, but only for boys who reported low levels of family loneliness. In addition, more paternal power assertion was related to less peer acceptance, but only for boys who reported low levels of family loneliness. Maternal warmth and power assertion were not significantly related to boys' peer functioning. We discuss these findings in the context of the processes by which parenting may affect the peer relationships of these children.     

Psychological trauma associated with AIDS and HIV infection in women

The growing numbers of women faced with HIV infection and AIDS has specific counselling implications. This paper analyses the psychological needs of all women patients seen by the psychology department (n = 33) over the past 12 months. The mean age was 32.3 years. Psychological crisis was high. Four women reported rapes (three accounting for their HIV infection). Two women had suicide attempts (one on two occasions), Death experiences were notable, including multiple bereavement. Conjidentiality was problematic for many of the women. Problems were reported around pre- and post-test counselling which was absent for three women, and often surrounded the diagnosis of a loved one (child, husband or partner). Most women were first seen as in-patients (when disease progression was extensive) or when their partners or children were in-patients. Despite offers of out-patients follow-up, only four HIV + ve women attended, three of which were irregular. A group of ten women were only seen indirectly when provision of care wasgiven to their children. A consistent group were seen with worries about HIV (either due to sexual contact with a known HZV+ ve or at risk individual) or to unfounded concerns often reflecting underlying psychological problems. This paper explores the counselling challenges of AIDS and HIV for women.     

Preliminary efficacy of a computer-based HIV intervention for African-American women

This study evaluated the preliminary efficacy of a computer-based HIV intervention to enhance HIV-protective sexual behaviours, based on a randomised controlled trial among 135 African-American women, 21-29 years of age, seeking services at Planned Parenthood in Atlanta, GA. Participants were randomised either to a control session two, 60-minute computer-based HIV intervention sessions administered on a laptop computer that each concluded with a 15-minute small group session or to a control session of general health information including discussion on HIV prevention. Relative to controls, participants in the computer-based HIV intervention were more knowledgeable about HIV/STD prevention and reported higher scores on the measure of condom use self-efficacy at 3 months post-intervention; they also reported a higher percentage of condom-protected sex and were more likely to use condoms consistently for vaginal sex (odds ratio, OR = 5.9; p < 0.039) and were more likely to use condoms consistently for oral sex (OR = 13.83; p < 0.037). This relatively brief intervention provides preliminary support that an evidence-based group-based HIV prevention intervention for young African-American women can be adapted to a computer-based HIV intervention.     

Spared at Random: Survivor Reactions in the Gay Community1

Many gay men who have tested negative for HIV were sexually active prior to a general awareness of how HIV is transmitted. Based on the work of Lifton (1980), such HIV-negative gay men may be considered “survivors” since they have witnessed the deaths of many members of their community and have been spared. Survivors may be expected to manifest one or more of three survivor reactions: guilt about surviving (HIV-related guilt), anxiety about dying (AIDS-related death anxiety), and blunted affect. The present study employed structural equation modeling in samples of HIV-negative (N= 129) and HIV-positive (N= 95) gay men to assess psychological and behavioral variables predictive of the presence of a survivor reaction. Survivor reactions were uniquely predicted among HIV-negative gay men. The larger the number of sexual partners HIV-negative gay men reported having had prior to 1984, the more likely they were to experience a survivor reaction. Greater satisfaction with social support from gay friends, and, indirectly, gay-related community group involvement, was associated with being less likely to experience a survivor reaction.