A Taxonomy of Part-Whole Relations

A taxonomy of part-whole or meronymic relations is developed to explain the ordinary English-speaker's use of the term “part of” and its cognates. The resulting classification yields six types of meronymic relations: 1. component-integral object (pedal-bike), 2. member-collection (ship-fleet), 3. portion-mass (slice-pie), 4. stuff-object (steel-car), 5. feature-activity (paying-shopping), and 6. place-area (Everglades-Florida). Meronymic relations ore further distinguished from other inclusion relations, such as spatial inclusion, and class inclusion, and from several other semantic relations: attribution, attachment, and ownership. This taxonomy is then used to explain cases of apparent intransitivity in merological syllogisms, and standard form syllogisms whose premises express different inclusion relations. The data suggest that intransitivities arise due to equivocations between different types of semantic relations. These results are then explained by means of the relation element theory which accounts for the character and behavior of semantic relations in terms of more primitive relational elements. The inferential phenomena observed are then explained by means of a single principle of element matching.     

A Hierarchical Taxonomy of Human Goals

This paper presents a hierarchical taxonomy of human goals, based on similarity judgments of 135 goals gleaned from the literature. Women and men in 3 age groups—17–30, 25–62, and 65 and older—sorted the goals into conceptually similar groups. These were cluster analyzed and a taxonomy of 30 goal clusters was developed for each age group separately and for the total sample. The clusters were conceptually meaningful and consistent across the 3 samples. The broadest distinction in each sample was between interpersonal or social goals and intrapersonal or individual goals, with interpersonal goals divided into family-related and more general social goals. Further, the 30 clusters were organized into meaningful higher order clusters. The role of such a taxonomy in promoting theory development and research is discussed, as is its relationship to other organizations of human goals and to the Big Five structure of personality.     

A Taxonomy of Noncanonical Uses of Interrogatives

Axiomathes - The aims of this paper are (i) to provide a detailed taxonomy of noncanonical uses of interrogative sentences, i.e. when they are used not to ask a question but to convey some...     

A Two Factor Taxonomy of Creative Bechavior

Two empirical studies examined the similarities and differences between creative professionals in science and art. In the first, 16PF personality profiles of industrial scientists, musicians and artists, and general undergraduates (N = 99) showed no difference between scientific and artistic groups on the Creativity composite index, and both groups differed significantly from general undergraduates. There were a few significant differences on specific traits, however. In the second study, self-reports of involvement in creative behavior collected from larger similar samples (N = 590) were factor analyzed. Two distinct but correlated factors (r = .32) emerged that separated artistic from scientific and business activity. The results indicated that people who specialize in one content domain often make contributions in other domains as well.     

A Taxonomy of Counseling Goals and Methods

Content analysis and multivariate taxonomic procedures were used to generate taxonomies of counseling methods and goals. Items within each taxonomy were taken from the works of 14 American theorists in counseling and psychotherapy. Seven goal clusters were generated: Transfer of Therapy Learning to Outside Situations, Awareness and Acceptance of Self in Conflict, Specific Symptom Removal, Strengthened Ego Functioning, Awareness of Positive Inner Resources, Learning to Respond to and Control the Environment, and Awareness of Negative Thoughts and Feelings. Six process clusters emerged: Client Acceptance, Active Critical Questioning, Recognition and Interpretation of Unconscious Material, Manipulation of Client Anxiety, Reeducation About Emotional Conflicts, and Support of Client Autonomy. The article discusses the implications of the taxonomies for practice.     

公平敏感性研究述评

公平敏感性是基于对Adams公平理论的批评提出来的,反映的是人们在公平问题上的个体差异性。该文首先对公平敏感性概念的提出与修正进行了回顾,并介绍了公平敏感性的测量方法和分类标准;然后分析了公平敏感性对于结果变量的直接及调节效应,个人及社会文化因素对公平敏感性的影响,并介绍了公平敏感性的跨文化比较;最后指出该领域未来的研究应着重澄清对概念理解的差异,改进分类标准,加强对公平敏感性影响因素以及中国人公平敏感性的研究     

A Review and Taxonomy of Choice Architecture Techniques

We present a taxonomy of choice architecture techniques that focus on intervention design, as opposed to the underlying cognitive processes that make an intervention work. We argue that this distinction will facilitate further empirical testing and will assist practitioners in designing interventions. The framework is inductively derived from empirically tested examples of choice architecture and consists of nine techniques targeting decision information, decision structure, and decision assistance. An inter‐rater reliability test demonstrates that these techniques can be used in an intersubjectively replicable way to describe sample choice architectures. We conclude by discussing limitations of the framework and key issues concerning the use of the techniques in the development of new choice architectures. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

青年学生自信类型划分初探

本文以自信的强度和清晰度为分类依据,以总体自信问卷、自信清晰度问卷为工具, 对青年学生的自信类型进行了初步探索.聚类分析发现自信可以划分为成熟型、盲目型、滞后型、游离型和中间型五种基本类型.进一步检验表明,青年学生自信类型存在显著的性别效应,各个类型自信群体的心理健康状况存在显著差异.文章围绕基于多指标的自信类型划分的有效性和可行性进行了讨论.     

A Taxonomy of Anger-Related Behaviors in Young Adults

In 2 studies, we investigated the occurrence of anger-related behaviors and their relationship to emotional, performance-related, and situational variables. In the first study, we constructed a comprehensive taxonomy of behaviors associated with anger, and we examined the occurrence of the resulting behavior categories as a function of several independent variables. A total of 8 distinct behavior categories were identified, 3 aggressive and 5 nonaggressive. Our results also demonstrated that fight (including both verbal and physical aggression) and flight behaviors occurred most frequently. Physical aggression, however, occurred most frequently in an inhibited form, in response to the emotion of anger (as compared to the emotion of irritation), and when the anger was intense. A second study was conducted to replicate and extend the findings of Study 1. The results suggest that the taxonomy, as derived in Study 1, is comprehensive and allows for a reliable categorization. Moreover, it appeared that fight and flight behaviors occurred most frequently if the target at whom one is angry was present. The following reduction rules were used: (a) responses that differed only in the order of the words were put together; (b) singular and plural items were joined; (c) responses that differed only in verbs such as “to be,” “to become” or “to do” were grouped together; (d) responses that differed only syntactically (verb, noun or adjective) were grouped together; (e) responses that differed only with respect to an article, a preposition, or a possessive word were grouped together; (f) and a few specific rules were used (e.g., yourself = myself; self = auto). The complete coding manual is available upon request from the first author. This number differed across proportions because it depended on the number of participants assigned to each of the experimental questionnaires. Our initial analyses contained a participant-specific random intercept, so as to take into account individual differences in the propensity to use each of the behavior categories. Inclusion of a random intercept appeared to yield a significant improvement in model fit for two of the eight behavior categories. However, because analyses with a random and with a fixed intercept yielded similar conclusions, we decided to select the most parsimonious model, namely the one without a random intercept. The total number of participant–performance–instrumentality combinations equals 504 (i.e., 84×6) because all 84 participants had to answer six questions.     

Being a Foreigner in Philosophy: A Taxonomy

The question of diversity, both with regard to the demographic profile of philosophers as well as the content of philosophical inquiry, has received much attention in recent years. One figure that has gone relatively unnoticed is that of the foreigner. To the extent that philosophers have taken the foreigner as their object of inquiry, they have focused largely on challenges nonnative speakers of English face in a profession conducted predominantly in English. Yet an understanding of the foreigner in terms of the nonnative speaker does not exhaust the conceptual space of the foreigner. This article provides a more nuanced conceptual apparatus that allows for a more precise identification and discussion of other ways in which one can be a foreigner in philosophy. I develop a taxonomy of different conceptions of the foreigner, namely the linguistic, material, cultural, and epistemic foreigner; I discuss the different and specific challenges they face; and I show how foreigners enrich philosophical practice.     

Analogy Counterarguments: A Taxonomy for Critical Thinking

The presentation of analogical arguments in the critical thinking literature fails to reflect cognitive research on analogy. Part of the problem is that these treatments of analogy do not address counterarguments, an important aspect of the analysis of analogical argumentation. In this paper, I present a taxonomy of four counterarguments, false analogy, misanalogy, disanalogy, and counteranalogy, analyzed along two dimensions, orientation and effect. The counterarguments are treated in the framework of the multiconstraint theory of analogy (Holyoak and Thagard, 1995). This framework is also extended to account for the evidence brought to light by the consideration of counterarguments. The result is a psychologically motivated treatment of analogical arguments that will be useful both for critical and pedagogical purposes.     

Taxonomy of Spiritual Experiences

Spiritual experiences are often associated with health crises, with little information about the structure of the experience. A taxonomic analysis was conducted on data from a group of healers, unveiling a structural model of spiritual experience comprised of three domains: circumstances, manifestation and interpretation. Circumstances included the aspects of setting, situation, and timing. Manifestation incorporated the modes of awareness and the phenomena of the experience. Components of interpretation included personal meaning and congruence with social norms. The examples reflected the orientation of the study population. Further research could examine the applicability of the taxonomy to other religious or spiritual orientations and may assist in clinical assessment of spiritual experiences.Diane Wind Wardell, Ph.D., R.N.C., H.N.C., C.H.T.P./I., and Joan C. Engebretson, Dr.P.H., R.N., H.N.C., are Associate Professors in the School of Nursing at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston. Correspondence to Diane Wind Wardell, Diane.Wardell@uth.tmc.edu.     

A Comparative Taxonomy of Medieval and Modern Approaches to Liar Sentences

Two periods in the history of logic and philosophy are characterized notably by vivid interest in self-referential paradoxical sentences in general, and Liar sentences in particular: the later medieval period (roughly from the 12th to the 15th century) and the last 100 years. In this paper, I undertake a comparative taxonomy of these two traditions. I outline and discuss eight main approaches to Liar sentences in the medieval tradition, and compare them to the most influential modern approaches to such sentences. I also emphasize the aspects of each tradition that find no counterpart in the other one. It is expected that such a comparison may point in new directions for future research on the paradoxes; indeed, the present analysis allows me to draw a few conclusions about the general nature of Liar sentences, and to identify aspects that would require further investigation.     

Establishing Standards for Equity: A Suggested Model

This article describes five steps that can be used in the establishment of standards for equity programs. A model program, developed for Florida vocational education initiatives, is presented.     

社会经济因素相关的农村居民医疗服务利用公平性

农村居民医疗服务利用过程中并存着亲穷人的不公平与亲富人的不公平,但分布规律无趋同迹象.新农合在促进农村居民医疗服务利用整体水平提高的同时没有改善其利用公平性.对农村居民医疗服务利用公平性的研究需要以更大范围的调查数据为基础并运用严谨的数理分析方法,同时应对农村居民医疗服务的利用质量公平问题给予适当关注.     

柯亨的公正思想初探

近年来,国内学者研究分析的马克思主义成果较多,但大都集中在其重建"微观基础"的方法论以及对历史唯物主义、阶级理论的重新解释和对资本主义的经济分析上面,专门研究分析的马克思主义政治哲学的不多,而专门研究某代表人物公正思想的更少.然而,自由、平等、公正这一人类共同的价值诉求,无疑应该引起我们的高度关注.分析的马克思主义主要代表人物、英国牛津大学柯亨教授(G.A.Cohen),1995年在剑桥大学出版社出版了他研究政治哲学的第一部专著:<自我所有,自由和平等>(Self-ownership,Freedom,and Equality).