污名现象及其心理效应

污名本质上是一种消极的刻板印象,是社会对某些个体或群体贬低性的、侮辱性的标签,对被污名者有着深刻的影响。文章从三个方面对污名的相关研究做了简要的回顾。首先介绍了几种污名的相关定义;然后介绍了污名的心理效应,包括污名他人的功能,污名对群体和个体的影响,以及社会公众对污名的态度和应对过程;第三介绍了两个污名研究的主要领域：一个是污名群体知觉、应对歧视规律的污名歧视研究,另一个是可隐匿污名的相关研究,如隐匿污名的心理过程,隐匿的情绪反应以及揭示污名的心理意义等。最后,提出了未来研究的几点展望,可隐匿污名的相关研究,内隐社会认知研究和消除污名消极影响的干预研究     

Concealable Stigmatized Identities and Psychological Well‐Being

Many people have concealable stigmatized identities: Identities that can be hidden from others and that are socially devalued and negatively stereotyped. Understanding how these concealable stigmatized identities affect psychological well‐being is critical. We present our model of the components of concealable stigmatized identities including valenced content– internalized stigma, experienced discrimination, anticipated stigma, disclosure reactions, and counter‐stereotypic/positive information – and magnitude– centrality and salience. Research has shown that negatively valenced content is related to increased psychological distress. However, smaller identity magnitude may buffer this distress. We review the research available and discuss important areas for future work.     

Discrimination against facially stigmatized applicants in interviews: an eye-tracking and face-to-face investigation

Drawing from theory and research on perceived stigma (Pryor, Reeder, Yeadon, & Hesson-McInnis, 2004), attentional processes (Rinck & Becker, 2006), working memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974), and regulatory resources (Muraven & Baumeister, 2000), the authors examined discrimination against facially stigmatized applicants and the processes involved. In Study 1, 171 participants viewed a computer-mediated interview of an applicant who was facially stigmatized or not and who either did or did not acknowledge the stigma. The authors recorded participants' (a) time spent looking at the stigma (using eye tracker technology), (b) ratings of the applicant, (c) memory recall about the applicant, and (d) self-regulatory depletion. Results revealed that the participants with facially stigmatized applicants attended more to the cheek (i.e., where the stigma was placed), which led participants to recall fewer interview facts, which in turn led to lower applicant ratings. In addition, the participants with the stigmatized (vs. nonstigmatized) applicant depleted more regulatory resources. In Study 2, 38 managers conducted face-to-face interviews with either a facially stigmatized or nonstigmatized applicant, and then rated the applicant. Results revealed that managers who interviewed a facially stigmatized applicant (vs. a nonstigmatized applicant) rated the applicant lower, recalled less information about the interview, and depleted more self-regulatory resources.     

Social Stigma and its Consequences for the Socially Stigmatized

This paper presents an integrative review of current and classic theory and research on social stigma and its consequences for the socially stigmatized. Specific attention is paid to stigma‐related processes surrounding race/ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation. The origins and perpetration of social stigma are discussed alongside perspectives on how stigmatized groups and individuals experience stigma‐related stress. Consideration is given to responses to stigma in the form of coping, social support, and meaning‐making processes. Both the potential negative and positive consequences of social stigma are highlighted in this review through the integration of predominant social psychological theory with emerging critical and feminist theories of positive marginality and resistance. The paper culminates in a theoretical process model designed to provoke future theory and research that share its integrative aims.     

The infection of bad company: stigma by association

Stigma by association represents the process through which the companions of stigmatized persons are discredited. Conduits for stigma by association range from the strong and enduring bonds of kinship to the arbitrary occasions of being seen in the company of someone who is stigmatized. A theoretical model is proposed in which both deliberative and spontaneous processes result in the spread of stigma to the companions of stigmatized persons. Support for this model was found across 3 studies that examined how explicit and implicit stigma-relevant attitudes moderate stigma-by-association effects. When social relationships were meaningful (e.g., kinship), both explicit and implicit attitudes moderated the devaluation of stigmatized persons' companions. On the other hand, when social relationships appeared coincidental only implicit attitudes moderated companion devaluation.     

Often biased but rarely in doubt: How initial reactions to stigmatized applicants affect interviewer confidence

Building on a metacognitive framework of heuristic judgments, we investigate the effect of applicant stigma on interviewers’ overconfidence in their (biased) judgments. There were 193 experienced interviewers conducting a face-to-face interview with an applicant who was facially stigmatized or not, and who was visible (traditional interview) or not (partially blind interview), to the interviewer during the rapport-building stage. In traditional interviews, interview judgments of stigmatized applicants were negatively biased, and interviewers reported overconfidence in these judgments. This effect was partially mediated by the interviewer’s professional performance during rapport building. Interview procedure moderated both the direct and indirect effect (through professional performance) of applicant stigma on interviewer confidence. Results show that interviewer (over)confidence in biased judgments is driven by the initial effects of, and reactions to, the stigmatized applicant.     

The Menstrual Mark: Menstruation as Social Stigma

In this theoretical paper, we argue that menstruation is a source of social stigma for women. The word stigma refers to any stain or mark that renders the individual’s body or character defective. This stigma is transmitted through powerful socialization agents in popular culture such as advertisements and educational materials. We demonstrate, in our review of the psychological literature concerning attitudes and experiences of predominantly American girls and women, that the stigmatized status of menstruation has important consequences for their health, sexuality, and well-being. We argue that the stigma of menstruation both reflects and contributes to women’s lower social status and conclude with suggestions for ways to resist the stigma.     

AIDS‐Related Stigma in Individuals With Other Stigmatized Identities in the USA: A Review of Layered Stigmas

AIDS‐related stigmas have profound negative impacts on people living with and those affected by HIV/AIDS. While a considerable body of work examines AIDS‐related stigma, it is less clear how AIDS stigmas affect individuals in relation to other stigmatized identities, particularly ethnic minorities. This review examines the literature on AIDS‐related stigma among these groups. The limited available research indicates that AIDS stigmas can seriously interfere with HIV testing, treatment, and care. In addition, prevention studies conducted with incarcerated adolescents, a group characterized by stigmatized identities and high risks for HIV, indicate that interventions for this population do not address stigmatized identities and demonstrate limited effects on risk reduction outcomes. Research is needed to examine stigma in primary prevention of HIV with an at‐risk stigmatized group.     

Stigma as ego depletion: how being the target of prejudice affects self-control

This research examined whether stigma diminishes people's ability to control their behaviors. Because coping with stigma requires self-regulation, and self-regulation is a limited-capacity resource, we predicted that individuals belonging to stigmatized groups are less able to regulate their own behavior when they become conscious of their stigmatizing status or enter threatening environments. Study 1 uncovered a correlation between stigma sensitivity and self-regulation; the more Black college students were sensitive to prejudice, the less self-control they reported having. By experimentally activating stigma, Studies 2 and 3 provided causal evidence for stigma's ego-depleting qualities: When their stigma was activated, stigmatized participants (Black students and females) showed impaired self-control in two very different domains (attentional and physical self-regulation). These results suggest that (a) stigma is ego depleting and (b) coping with it can weaken the ability to control and regulate one's behaviors in domains unrelated to the stigma.     

Recasting Stigma as a Dialogical Concept: A Case Study of Rural‐to‐Urban Migrants in China

The present study explores stigma against rural‐to‐urban migrants in China, drawing on a dialogical approach. It investigates the processes of stigmatization from two sides: that of the stigmatizer and that of the stigmatized. Open‐ended individual interviews were conducted with 138 participants (60 urban residents and 78 rural‐to‐urban migrants) in Tianjin, China. Findings from this study indicate that migrants were stigmatized by urban residents as having an unattractive physical appearance, potential perils of disease or crime, and discredited places of origin. Such stigma was embedded in China's unique hukou system and generated from a social categorization of superior and inferior groups. Migrants reported a number of coping strategies to counter such stigma: blaming fate, stigma reversal and upward mobility. However, migrants did not view themselves contemptuously and expressed positive feelings about their lives as migrants. They regarded internal migration as a way of pursuing happiness. Overall, urban residents stigmatized migrants legitimated by the hukou system, while migrants were surprisingly resilient against stigma, and did not internalize it, due to their economics‐driven internal migration. This study underscores that stigma in a given society is dialogically interdependent with its socio‐cultural context and that the perspectives of both the stigmatizer and the stigmatized need to be taken into consideration. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

职业污名与离职倾向：牵连家人污名与家庭卷入的作用

职业污名对从业者的工作态度和工作行为有着重要影响。以往研究从个体职业身份的视角解释职业污名的作用, 忽略了从业者个体身份认同的多重属性。本研究基于身份边界理论, 提出职业污名会通过牵连家人污名这一机制影响从业者的离职倾向。另外, 这一机制的强弱取决于个体的家庭卷入程度。本研究通过对分属不同职业的384名从业者的3轮问卷调研发现, 家庭卷入调节了牵连家人污名在职业污名与离职倾向之间的中介作用。当个体的家庭卷入水平高时, 这一中介作用更强; 家庭卷入水平低时, 该中介作用更弱。本研究在理论上提出并检验了职业污名影响的新机制, 同时对实际管理工作提出了建议。     

Impact of acceptance and commitment therapy versus education on stigma toward people with psychological disorders

Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) has previously been shown to alter stigmatizing attitudes and to be relatively useful for psychologically inflexible participants. The present study is the first to bring those two findings together by comparing ACT to an education intervention for reducing stigma toward people with psychological disorders, and examining whether results differ for psychologically inflexible versus flexible individuals. A sample of college students (N =95) was randomly assigned to a 2(1)2h ACT or educational workshop. Measures were taken before and after the workshop and at a 1-month follow-up. ACT reduced mental health stigma significantly regardless of participants' pre-treatment levels of psychological flexibility, but education reduced stigma only among participants who were relatively flexible and non-avoidant to begin with. Acceptance could be an important avenue of exploration for stigma researchers.     

Stigma Consciousness and the Race Gap in College Academic Achievement

Stereotyped individuals vary in how chronically self-conscious they are of their stigmatized status, a variable called stigma consciousness. The present study examined whether stigma consciousness was negatively related to academic achievement in college for academically stigmatized (Black and Hispanic) students, but not for academically non-stigmatized (White and Asian) students. Results revealed that stigmatized students who were high in stigma consciousness had lower GPAs than stigmatized students who were low in stigma consciousness. Moreover, GPAs of stigmatized students who were low in stigma consciousness did not differ from those of non-stigmatized students. These results complement recent laboratory investigations of stigma consciousness among women and contribute to the literature on stereotype threat by extending the phenomenon to real-world academic performance.     

The Confounding of Fat, Control, and Physical Attractiveness for Women

Fikkan and Rothblum (2011) provided a comprehensive review of the experience of weight bias in women. However, they do not significantly address why fat might be so negatively stigmatized in women. In this paper, I propose that fat women experience both the stigma of unattractiveness and the stigma that they lack control. Because women are expected to be physically attractive, fat women are more impacted by these stigmas than are fat men. Given that much of the research on fat stigma and physical attractiveness is done in Western countries, and fat is not stigmatized in the same way in all cultures, this paper is primarily focused on the United States, although some cross cultural research is discussed. Considering the source of fat women’s stigma provides a necessary foundation for a comprehensive review of the effects of that stigma.     

A New Stigmatized Identity? Comparisons of a “Food Addict” Label With Other Stigmatized Health Conditions

This research assessed public perceptions of a “food addict” label in comparison to stigmatized conditions including obesity, addiction, and disability. Study 1 found this label was perceived similarly to obesity, but more favorably than other addictions, and had an exacerbating effect on weight stigma. Study 2 experimentally replicated the latter effect but demonstrated no weight-related effects for the food addict label. This evidence suggests that food addiction may be less vulnerable to public stigma than other addictions but may increase the stigma associated with obesity. Food addiction as a stigmatized identity is discussed.     

Developmental regulation before and after a developmental deadline: the sample case of "biological clock" for childbearing

This quasi-experimental research investigates developmental regulation around a critical life-span transition, the "biological clock" for childbearing. The action-phase model of developmental regulation proposes contrasting control orientations in individuals approaching versus those having passed a developmental deadline. Individuals in an urgency phase close to the deadline should be invested in goal pursuit, whereas those who have passed the deadline without attaining the goal should focus on goal disengagement and self-protection. In 2 studies, women at different ages and with or without children were compared with regard to various indicators of primary and secondary control striving for goal attainment versus goal disengagement and self-protection. Findings support the action-phase model of developmental regulation. Patterns of control striving congruent with the participants' status as pre- versus postdeadline were associated with superior psychological well-being.     

Derogating obese individuals: the role of blame,contempt, and disgust

Weight stigma is pervasive and has profound negative consequences for obese individuals. The attribution‐emotion approach of stigmatization holds that blame attributions relate to derogation stigmatized groups indirectly through anger and pity. Other research suggests that disgust is related to weight stigma. In the present studies, we investigate whether contempt is a reliable predictor of biases against obese individuals. Study 1 (N = 297) shows that contempt partially mediates the relation between blame and both prejudice and support for weight related discrimination policies. Studies 2 and 3 (total N = 406) added disgust and show that both contempt and disgust relate to social distance and prejudice. Contempt mediated the relation between blame and negative reactions toward obese individuals, even after controlling for other emotions, while disgust only mediated these relations in Study 2. Anger and pity did not show this mediating role, but pity was moderately associated with weight bias. Contempt is likely to play an important role in how people react to members of this stigmatized group.     

Cumulative consequences of stigma: Possessing multiple concealable stigmatized identities is associated with worse quality of life

Large health disparities exist between stigmatized and nonstigmatized groups. In addition to experiencing and anticipating greater discrimination, members of stigmatized groups also tend to demonstrate greater ruminative tendencies in response, which may lead to these poor health outcomes. Even among stigmatized groups, differences in the visibility of stigma lead to different mechanisms through which stigma takes its toll. Previous work has primarily focused on the impact of belonging to a single marginalized group; however, people often belong to multiple marginalized groups, and this likely affects both their health outcomes and their anticipation of stigma. In the current study, we focused on individuals with concealable stigmatized identities (CSIs)—socially stigmatized identities that are not immediately apparent to others—and created a measure of concealable marginalization that captures multiple group memberships. We predicted that those possessing a greater number of CSIs would anticipate more stigma from others, and, in turn, ruminate more about the stigma, which would negatively impact the health. Surveying N = 288 adults with CSIs, we found that possessing a greater number of marginalized concealable identities predicted worse self-reported physical quality of life. These relationships were partially mediated by greater anticipated stigma and brooding rumination in regard to their CSI. This work illuminates a more complete picture of how living with CSIs can take its toll on health.     

Stigma and Psychological Distress in People With HIV/AIDS

Using a community sample of 197 people living with HIV/AIDS, we examined how awareness of societal stigma (felt stigma) and negative feelings toward oneself as a member of a stigmatized group (self-stigma) are related to psychological well-being. Both felt stigma and self-stigma were significantly correlated with symptoms of depression and anxiety, but controlling for felt stigma reduced self-stigma's association with depressive symptoms to nonsignificance. Global self-esteem and social avoidance fully mediated the associations between self-stigma and distress but only partially mediated the associations between felt stigma and distress. Felt stigma mediated the relationship between distress and HIV-related changes in physical appearance.     

Managing a stigmatized identity—evidence from a longitudinal analysis about people with mental illness

Previous research about coping with the stigma of mental illness mostly relied on cross‐sectional or qualitative research designs. In the present study, the consequences of ten identity management strategies for mental illness stigma were observed in a longitudinal design. Cross‐lagged analyses were used to describe the influence of the strategies on the frequency of stigma experiences and on mental health in a two‐wave panel of people with mental illness (n = 367, 79% repeated response rate). Selective disclosure and information seeking emerged as adaptive identity management strategies, whereas overcompensation and withdrawal led to lower mental health. Results were mostly unaffected by demographic and psychiatric variables. The results support an empowerment model of stigma resilience that portrays stigmatized people as active constructors of their social world.