Psychometric properties and concurrent validity of two exercise addiction measures: A population wide study

ObjectivesThe existence of exercise addiction has been examined in numerous studies. However, none of the measures developed for exercise addiction assessment have been validated on representative samples. Furthermore, estimates of exercise addiction prevalence in the general population are not available. The objective of the present study was to validate the Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI; Terry, Szabo, & Griffiths, 2004), and the Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS; Hausenblas & Downs, 2002b), and to estimate the prevalence of exercise addiction in general population.DesignExercise addiction was assessed within the framework of the National Survey on Addiction Problems in Hungary (NSAPH), a national representative study for the population aged 18–64 years (N = 2710).Method474 people in the sample (57% males; mean age 33.2 years) who reported to exercise at least once a week were asked to complete the two questionnaires (EAI, EDS).ResultsConfirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) indicated good fit both in the case of EAI (CFI = 0.971; TLI = 0.952; RMSEA = 0.052) and EDS (CFI = 0.938; TLI = 0.922; RMSEA = 0.049); and confirmed the factor structure of the two scales. The correlation between the two measures was high (r = 0.79). Results showed that 6.2% (EDS) and 10.1% (EAI) of the population were characterized as nondependent-symptomatic exercisers, while the proportion of the at-risk exercisers were 0.3% and 0.5%, respectively.ConclusionsBoth EAI and EDS proved to be a reliable assessment tool for exercise addiction, a phenomenon that is present in the 0.3–0.5% of the adult general population.     

Exercise is medicine… when you enjoy it: Exercise enjoyment,relapse prevention efficacy,and health outcomes for youth within a drug and alcohol treatment service

ObjectiveEvidence for the effectiveness of exercise as therapy for youth substance use disorder (SUD) is scarce. In this study, we investigated associations between exercise enjoyment and recovery outcomes for youth undergoing residential SUD treatment.MethodUsing ecological momentary assessment, each week participants reported perceptions of exercise enjoyment, relapse prevention efficacy, self-esteem, and physical health, and associations between these variables were assessed at both between- and within-person levels. There were 97 participants (age: M = 17.5, SD = 1.57, range = 14 to 21; 37 female, 60 male), with a final sample of 64 due to participants (n = 33) discontinuing treatment within 2 weeks of commencement. Of the remaining sample, 50% (n = 32) completed 3 or more assessments, 40% (n = 26) completed 5 or more, and 25% (n = 16) completed 7 or more.ResultsRelapse prevention efficacy, self-esteem, and perceived physical health increased over time in the program. Youth who, on average, enjoyed exercise more had higher self-esteem, perceived physical health, and relapse prevention efficacy than those who enjoyed it less. Additionally, on occasions when youth enjoyed exercise more (relative to their own average), they reported higher self-esteem, perceived physical health, and relapse prevention efficacy than on occasions when they reported enjoying it less.ConclusionParticipation in—and importantly, enjoyment of—exercise was linked to key health indices and predictors of relapse for youth during SUD treatment. These findings demonstrate that participation in enjoyable structured exercise may provide an important component of successful SUD treatment.     

The role of implicit and explicit components of exerciser self-schema in the prediction of exercise behaviour

ObjectivesThis study investigated implicit and explicit components of exerciser self-schema and their role in the prediction of exercise behaviour. In addition, the effect of implicit and explicit exerciser self-schema on intention to exercise was examined. Moderation and mediation effects involving exerciser self-schema, in both its implicit and explicit forms, were investigated.MethodMembers of fitness centres and other regular exercisers (N = 98, n_males = 37, n_females = 65) completed a written questionnaire to measure explicit exerciser self-schema and exercise intentions. An exercise Implicit Association Test (IAT) was also administered to measure implicit exerciser self-schema. Actual exercise occurrence was measured one week and two weeks following the initial testing phase.ResultsCorrelations indicated that implicit and explicit components of exerciser self-schema were related but distinct constructs. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that high levels of both implicit and explicit exerciser self-schema improved absolute levels of exercise behaviour. Regression analyses examining the possibility that self-schema moderated the intention–behaviour relationship were not significant for implicit or explicit forms of self-schema. Forced entry regression analyses provided evidence for explicit exerciser self-schema being mediated by intention in its relationship with behaviour.ConclusionsIt is beneficial to consider both implicit and explicit exerciser self-schema when attempting to understand and predict exercise behaviour. Both implicit and explicit exercise self-schema have a direct effect on behaviour, although explicit self-schema also indirectly influences behaviour via intention to exercise.     

Motor ability and self-esteem: The mediating role of physical self-concept and perceived social acceptance

ObjectivesOne important issue in sport and exercise psychology is to determine to what extent sports and exercise can help to increase self-esteem, and what the underlying mechanism might be. Based on the exercise and self-esteem model (EXSEM) and on findings from the sociometer theory, the mediating effect of physical self-concept and perceived social acceptance on the longitudinal relationship between motor ability and self-esteem was investigated.DesignLongitudinal study with three waves of data collection at intervals of ten weeks each.Method428 adolescents (46.3% girls, M_age = 11.9, SD = .55) participated in the study, in which they performed three motor ability tests and completed paper-and-pencil questionnaires for physical self-concept and perceived social acceptance, as well as for self-esteem, at all three measuring points.ResultsUsing structural equation modelling procedures, the multiple mediation model revealed both physical self-concept and perceived social acceptance to be mediators between motor ability and self-esteem in the case of boys. In girls, on the other hand, the mediation between motor ability and self-esteem only takes place via physical self-concept.ConclusionsGender differences in the relationship between motor ability and self-esteem suggest gender-specific interventions aimed at promoting self-concept.     

Women who use exercise as a compensatory behavior: How do they differ from those who do not?

ObjectivesThis research examined group differences between women who reported using exercise as a compensatory behavior (ECB; n = 73) and women who did not report using exercise as a compensatory behavior (NECB; n = 133) on alcohol and exercise behavior, drinking and exercise motivation, and several related constructs.DesignA cross-sectional design was used.MethodsUndergraduate women (M age = 19.5 years, SD = 3.01 years) completed self-report measures regarding their alcohol use, alcohol-related problems, exercise behavior, alcohol and exercise motivations, impulsivity, body dissatisfaction, and dietary restraint.ResultsResults indicated that women in the ECB group reported consuming more alcohol, more binge drinking episodes, more alcohol-related problems, higher alcohol and exercise motivations, more exercise, and greater impulsivity, body dissatisfaction, and dietary restraint than women in the NECB group (p's ranging from <.0001 to .017).ConclusionsInterestingly, women who use exercise as a compensatory behavior consumed higher amounts of alcohol, but did not drink more frequently than women who did not use exercise as a compensatory behavior. Women who use exercise as a compensatory behavior also endorse drinking and exercise motives more strongly than women who did not use exercise as a compensatory behavior.     

Obsessive beliefs and uncertainty in obsessive compulsive and related patients

Background/objectiveThe aim of the present study was to examine obsessive beliefs and intolerance of uncertainty differences among patients Obsessive compulsive disoreder (OCD), trichotillomania, excoriation, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and a control group healthy.Method130 participants between the ages of 17 and 62 years (Mean = 29.56, SD = 11.81) diagnosed with OCD (n = 36), trichotillomania (n = 18), excoriation (n = 17), GAD (n = 31) and a healthy control group (n = 28) were evaluated by Obsessive Beliefs Spanish Inventory-Revised and Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale.ResultsThe trichotillomania group presented one of the highest obsessive beliefs highlighting over-importance of thoughts, thought action fusion-moral, importance of controlling one's thoughts. The OCD group also had higher scores in inflated responsibility and thought action fusion-likelihood. The GAD group excelled in inhibitory and prospective uncertainty. The level of depression influenced obsessive beliefs while anxiety affected inhibitory and prospective uncertainty.ConclusionsCognitive variables such as obsessive beliefs and Intolerance of Uncertainty should be considered in the prevention and intervention of obsessive and anxiety disorders.     

Global and appearance-contingent self-esteem: Associations with health and attractiveness exercise reasons

Whilst some individuals exercise for health-related reasons, others appear to exercise to bolster physical attractiveness. For the latter, this is often attributed to dissatisfaction with appearance. Few studies, however, have explored if differences in self-esteem may relate to diverse exercise reasons. The present study investigated whether global self-esteem, appearance-contingent self-worth, and appearance satisfaction may be differentially associated with health and attractiveness exercise reasons. It was further sought to explore whether these relations coincided with different motivational regulations. Adults from the east midlands of the United Kingdom (N = 209; 75% female, 25% male; mean age = 29.77 years) completed measures relating to their global and appearance-contingent self-esteem, appearance satisfaction, exercise intentions, and motivations. Structural equation modelling revealed that global self-esteem was positively associated with appearance satisfaction and health reasons for exercise, whereas appearance-contingent self-esteem related to lower appearance satisfaction and attractiveness reasons. Appearance satisfaction had no association with either exercise reason but was associated with intrinsic motivation and lower controlled exercise motivations. Health exercise reasons were positively associated with intrinsic, identified, and introjected motivation, whereas attractiveness reasons were exclusively related to external motivation. The findings highlight the conceptual importance of differentiating the level and contingency of exercisers’ self-esteem. The findings may also have substantive value for exercise practitioners in understanding different reasons for exercise.     

‘On-the ground’ strategy matrix for fostering quality participation experiences among persons with disabilities in community-based exercise programs

ObjectiveThe purposes of this paper are to (1) document the generation and refinement of a quality participation strategy list to ensure resonance and applicability within community-based exercise programs (CBEPs) for persons with physical and intellectual disabilities, and (2) identify theoretical links between strategies and the quality participation constructs.MethodsTo address purpose one, a list of strategies to foster quality participation among members was extracted from qualitative interviews with providers from nine CBEPs serving persons with physical disabilities. Next, providers from CBEPs serving persons with physical (n = 9) and intellectual disabilities (n = 6) were asked to identify the strategies used, and examples of their implementation, within their programs. Additional strategies noted by providers and in recent published syntheses were added to the preliminary list. A re-categorization and revision process was conducted. To address purpose two, 22 researchers with expertise in physical and/or intellectual disability, physical activity, participation and/or health behaviour change theory completed a closed-sort task to theoretically link each strategy to the constructs of quality participation.ResultsThe final list of 85 strategies is presented in a matrix. Each strategy has explicit examples and proposed theoretical links to the constructs of quality participation.ConclusionsThe strategy matrix offers a theoretically-meaningful representation of how quality participation-enhancing strategies can be practically implemented “on-the-ground” in CBEPs for persons with disabilities.     

Defining features of unhealthy exercise associated with disordered eating and eating disorder diagnoses

ObjectivesThe current study sought to compare different features of unhealthy exercise on associations with disordered eating and their ability to identify individuals with eating disorders. A secondary aim of the study was to compare prevalence and overlap of different aspects of unhealthy exercise and potential differences in their gender distribution.DesignCross-sectional epidemiological study.MethodsA community-based sample of men (n = 592) and women (n = 1468) completed surveys of health and eating patterns, including questions regarding exercise habits and eating disorder symptoms.ResultsCompulsive and compensatory features of exercise were the best predictors of disordered eating and eating disorder diagnoses compared to exercise that was excessive in quantity. Further, compulsive and compensatory aspects of unhealthy exercise represented overlapping, yet distinct qualities in both men and women.ConclusionsIncluding the compulsive quality among the defining features of unhealthy exercise may improve identification of eating disorders, particularly in men. Results suggest that the compensatory aspect of unhealthy exercise is not adequately captured by the compulsive aspect of unhealthy exercise. Thus, interventions that target unhealthy exercise behaviors among high-risk individuals, such as athletes, may benefit from addressing both the compulsive and compensatory aspects of unhealthy exercise. Future prospective longitudinal studies will aid in determining the direction of the association between these features of unhealthy exercise and the onset of eating pathology.     

Type of physical exercise and inhibitory function in older adults: An event-related potential study

ObjectivesThe present study was to examine the relationship between exercise type and inhibitory function in older adults using neuroelectric indices.DesignA cross-sectional design was employed in the present study.MethodSixty adults (M = 69.42 years) were categorized into open-skill, closed-skill, and irregular exercise groups according to their history of exercise participation. The participants conducted a flanker task while their behavioral performance and event-related brain potentials were assessed.ResultsThe results indicated that regular exercisers, regardless of exercise type, exhibited a faster reaction time across conditions of the flanker task compared to irregular exercisers. For the P300 amplitude of the open-skill exerciser group, the peak amplitude was larger at the vertex site compared to the frontal site, whereas no site differences were observed in the closed-skill and irregular exerciser groups.ConclusionsThese findings extend current knowledge by suggesting that, for older adults, participation in physical exercise involving increased cognitive demand is associated with better neural efficiency in resource allocation for tasks that require interference control.     

Development and initial validity of the Exercise-Related Cognitive Errors Questionnaire

ObjectiveCognitive errors (CEs) reflect individuals' biased evaluations of context-relevant information. In the exercise domain, a valid form of exercise CE assessment is needed. The Exercise-related Cognitive Errors Questionnaire (E-CEQ) was developed to determine to what extent adults make cognitive errors regarding exercise decisions. The purpose of this study was to develop and provide initial validity evidence for the E-CEQ.DesignThe current study used an online self-report survey.MethodFirst, 24 initial vignettes representing 6 CEs were created and content validated. Second, data from 364 adults (M_age = 29.1, SD_age = 11.6; 81.3% female) was gathered to examine the E-CEQ's factor structure. Finally, data from the 364 participants was used to examine aspects of criterion-related validity.ResultsA 16-item, three-factor model was retained as the final E-CEQ factor structure and had good psychometric properties (χ² = 164.35, df = 75, p < .001; RMSEA = .057; CFI = .947; TLI = .915). Evidence of the questionnaire's predictive utility is provided. For example, exercise CEs were negatively related to exercise and accounted for 4.9% of additional variance beyond the contribution of past exercise in predicting exercise intention.ConclusionsThe steps taken to examine different forms of validity helped provide a platform from which to continue (a) to study biases linked to cognitive errors and (b) the E-CEQ validation process through ongoing investigation.     

Gender-related differences in self-reported problematic exercise symptoms: A systematic review and meta-analysis

AimsTo provide quantitative summarized evidence on gender-related differences in self-reported problematic exercise (PE) symptoms.MethodsEligible studies were searched up to December 31, 2021 in the databases MEDLINE, Current Contents Connect, PsycINFO, Web of Science, SciELO, and Dissertations & Theses Global. Studies were considered eligible if they included information that allowed the calculation of the differences of interest as expressed by either the aggregate or subscales scores of the main self-reported instruments of PE identified by previous research (i.e., Commitment to Exercise Scale, Compulsive Exercise Test, Exercise Addiction Inventory, Exercise Dependence Questionnaire, Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised, and Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire). Data were analysed using three-level meta-analytic models. Potential moderator variables were examined using meta-regressions.ResultsA total of 168 effect-sizes from 117 studies (N = 65,718) were retrieved. Results showed (i) small overall differences favouring males for the aggregate scores of the instruments (g = 0.105), (ii) small-to-moderate differences favouring females for symptoms involving withdrawal (g = 0.169 and 0.118), lack of exercise enjoyment (g = 0.226), and the employment of exercise as a means to ends such as health improvement (g = 0.222), mood management (g = 0.158 and 0.226), and body weight control (g = 0.453 and 0.465); and (iii) small differences favouring males for symptoms involving spending considerable amount of time in the activity (g = 0.250), exercising with greater volume/intensity than planned (g = 0.254), a need for increased amounts of exercise to achieve the desired effect (g = 0.291), loss of control over the behaviour (g = 0.101), reduction or cessation of other activities because of exercise (g = 0.323), and continue to exercise despite physical and/or psychological issues being caused or exacerbated by this behaviour (g = 0.243).ConclusionsAdopting a gender-informed perspective may be needed both in the professional praxis of exercise and health practitioners prescribing and guiding exercise practice and in the design of prevention and treatment efforts aimed at avoiding the occurrence of PE.     

Self-compassion and women athletes' responses to emotionally difficult sport situations: An evaluation of a brief induction

ObjectivesTo examine self-compassion as a way to promote healthy responses in women athletes when faced with emotionally difficult sport-specific situations.DesignPhase I, cross-sectional; Phase II, experimental.MethodsIn Phase I, participants (N = 101; M_age = 20.0, SD = 2.8 years) completed measures of self-compassion, self-esteem, and narcissism, as well as reactions, thoughts, and emotions in response to hypothetical (i.e., responsible for a team loss) and recalled scenarios. Participants returning for Phase II were randomly assigned to a brief self-compassion induction (n = 21), self-esteem induction (n = 20), or writing control (n = 18) group. Following the induction, they responded to the same hypothetical scenario as in Phase I.Phase I resultsAfter partialling out self-esteem and narcissism, self-compassion was related (p < .01) to negative affect (r = −.40), catastrophizing thoughts (r = −.30), personalizing thoughts (r = −.32), and behavioral equanimity (r = .28) for the hypothetical scenario. A similar pattern was found for the recalled scenario.Phase II resultsA MANOVA with Phase I self-compassion, self-esteem, and narcissism as covariates resulted in a non-significant group by time interaction, Wilks' Lambda = .75, F(12,96) = 1.27, p = .25. Follow-up hierarchical regression analysis showed Phase I levels of self-compassion as the only significant predictor for negative affect, personalizing thoughts, and behavioral equanimity.ConclusionsWomen athletes with higher self-compassion levels generally responded in healthier ways to emotionally difficult hypothetical and recalled situations in sport than their less self-compassionate counterparts. However, future research needs continued focus on evaluating self-compassion inductions and interventions for use in sport.     

Deepening the measurement of motivation in the physical activity domain: Introducing behavioural resolve

ObjectivesIntention is theorized as the proximal determinant of behaviour in many leading theories and yet tests of its absolute predictive utility show discordance. While one line of research has been investigating constructs that may augment intention, another possibility may be to improve measurement. The purpose of this study was to compare a typical measure of exercise intention with a measure that attempts to deepen the motivational domain via considerations of contextual barriers and other competing goals (named behavioural resolve).DesignTwo-week prospective.MethodParticipants were a random sample of university students who were subsequently randomized to groups who completed either measures of behavioural intention (n = 179) and behavioural resolve (n = 227) in relation to exercise and a 2-week follow-up of exercise behaviour.ResultsComparing the two measures showed that the behavioural resolve construct explained significantly more variance in exercise behaviour than the standard intention construct (q = .35). Further comparison of the two measures showed that absolute discordance with subsequent exercise behaviour was considerably lower with behavioural resolve (mean = ?.09) compared to behavioural intention (mean = ?1.28).ConclusionsThese findings indicate that at least some of the intention–behaviour gap may be from inadequate measurement of the motivational domain, and this can be partially rectified with shifting to a behavioural resolve measure.     

Long-term efficacy of exercise across diagnostically heterogenous mental disorders and the mediating role of affect regulation skills

BackgroundExercise interventions are efficacious in reducing disorder-specific symptoms in various mental disorders. However, little is known about long-term transdiagnostic efficacy of exercise across heterogenous mental disorders and the potential mechanisms underlying treatment effects.MethodsPhysically inactive outpatients, with depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, insomnia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were randomized to a standardized 12-week exercise intervention, combining moderate exercise with behavior change techniques (BCTs) (n = 38), or a passive control group (n = 36). Primary outcome was global symptom severity (Symptom Checklist-90, SCL-90-R) and secondary outcomes were self-reported exercise (Physical Activity, Exercise, and Sport Questionnaire), exercise-specific affect regulation (Physical Activity-related Health Competence Questionnaire) and depression (SCL-90-R) assessed at baseline (T1), post-treatment (T2) and one year after post-treatment (T3). Intention-to-treat analyses were conducted using linear mixed models and structural equations modeling.ResultsFrom T1 to T3, the intervention group significantly improved on global symptom severity (d = −0.43, p = .031), depression among a depressed subsample (d = −0.62, p = .014), exercise (d = 0.45, p = .011) and exercise-specific affect regulation (d = 0.44, p = .028) relative to the control group. The intervention group was more likely to reveal clinically significant changes from T1 to T3 (p = .033). Increases in exercise-specific affect regulation mediated intervention effects on global symptom severity (ß = −0.28, p = .037) and clinically significant changes (ß = −0.24, p = .042).ConclusionsThe exercise intervention showed long-term efficacy among a diagnostically heterogeneous outpatient sample and led to long-lasting exercise behavior change. Long-term increases in exercise-specific affect regulation within exercise interventions seem to be essential for long-lasting symptom reduction.     

Transient cardiac responses to witnessing horrible events in young adult female exercisers and non-exercisers

ObjectivesIt has been proposed that regular exercisers may be less vulnerable to the effects of stress and better able to cope with aversive events than people who are sedentary, but findings have not been consistent. In the present study, physiological variables indicating specific relevant psychological processes were used to objectively assess women's responses to stressful events.Design and MethodNon-exercising (n = 56) and regularly exercising women (up to 4 h, n = 62, and more than 4 h per week, n = 50) were viewing an aversive film consisting of scenes of real injury and death, and their transient cardiac responses to sudden horrifying events happening to persons in the film were obtained, as well as changes of prefrontal-posterior coupling, measured by EEG.ResultsCompared to regularly exercising women, non-exercising women showed a clearly more pronounced second accelerative component of the transient heart rate response to the terrifying events, indicating greater sensitivity of the avoidance (defensive) motivational system and heightened sensitivity to aversive stimuli. Moreover, non-exercising women did not show the expected characteristic initial heart rate acceleration when the scene approached its fatal end, that is, more rigid responding, and EEG data indicated less susceptibility to affect-laden information at the perceptual level.ConclusionsThe findings support the notion of less adaptive coping with adverse events in sedentary compared to exercising women and add to the growing evidence suggesting a stress-buffering effect of regular exercise, therefore promoting resilience and resistance to the negative impact of stressor and trauma exposure.     

Too much of a good thing? Examining the relationship between passion for exercise and exercise dependence

ObjectivesTo examine the relationship between passion (i.e., love for an activity that is valued for which and a great deal of time is invested) for exercise and exercise dependence symptoms.DesignA cross-sectional correlational survey design was utilised.MethodA total of 480 participants (n = 275 females, n = 205 males; M_age = 18.58, SD = 1.66) completed the Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (Godin, Jobin, & Bouillon, 1986), the Passion Scale (Vallerand et al., 2003), and the Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised (Hausenblas, Symons-Downs, & Nigg, 2004). Path analysis using structural equation modelling was used to assess the relationships between passion and exercise dependence.ResultsPath analysis using structural equation modelling via AMOS 20.0 (Arbuckle, 2011) revealed that harmonious passion (i.e., being in control of the activity and deciding when and when not to engage in it) was positively related to the exercise dependence dimensions of time and tolerance. On the other hand, obsessive passion (i.e., an internal compulsion to engage in the activity even when not appropriate to do so) was positively related to all seven exercise dependence dimensions: time, tolerance, withdrawal, continuance, intention effects, lack of control, and reduction in other activities (CFI = .91, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .06).ConclusionAn empirical relationship has been established to support the proposed theoretical link between passion (harmonious and obsessive) for exercise and exercise dependence dimensions.     

Self-critical perfectionism and depressive symptoms: Low self-esteem and experiential avoidance as mediators

This study of community adults (N = 210) aimed to gain a better understanding of the links among self-critical (SC) perfectionism, self-esteem, experiential avoidance, and depressive symptoms. Participants completed self-report questionnaires assessing perfectionism dimensions, self-esteem, experiential avoidance, and depressive symptoms. Confirmatory factor analysis supported SC perfectionism, self-esteem, experiential avoidance, and depressive symptoms as distinct, but related, constructs. Structural equation modeling (SEM) demonstrated that the relation between SC perfectionism and depressive symptoms was mediated by lower self-esteem. SEM also showed that experiential avoidance independently mediated the relation between SC perfectionism and depressive symptoms, controlling for the effects of lower self-esteem. These results distinguish SC perfectionism from lower self-esteem by demonstrating that individuals with higher SC perfectionism have a unique propensity toward experiential avoidance, which, in turn, incrementally explains why they experience higher levels of depressive symptoms.     

Goal orientations at the global level of generality and in physical education: Their association with self-regulation,affect, beliefs and behaviours

ObjectiveLife skills programs should ensure that their effects generalize across contexts and activities. Three studies are presented examining the construct validity of an instrument assessing global goal orientations in life in conjunction with a measure of goal orientations in physical education. It was also investigated whether the effects of global goal orientations generalize across contexts.MethodParticipants were middle school students (N = 351, N = 580 and N = 658) who completed the two goal orientations instruments, measures of self-regulation, affect and beliefs at the global level of generality and specific to the physical education domain and measures of exercise and academic behaviours.ResultsMulti-sample factor analysis established the factorial validity of the global goal orientations' instrument and the distinctiveness of global goals from achievement goals in physical education. Controlling for social desirability effects, the partial correlations of goal orientations in life with global intrinsic–extrinsic motivation, life satisfaction, pleasant and unpleasant affect in life, purposes of life and perceived purposes of physical education, locomotion and assessment, metacognition in physical education, exercise and academic behaviours, were in the expected direction. In general, global goals made a significant contribution to the explanation of variance of global constructs, while achievement goals in physical education made a unique contribution to the explanation of variance of physical education specific constructs.DiscussionThe results support the construct validity of the instrument assessing global goal orientations in life. They also indicate that global goal orientations are distinct constructs from goal orientations in physical education. The global goal orientations' measure can be particularly useful for practitioners teaching interdisciplinary and life skills.     

Body image in social anxiety disorder,obsessive–compulsive disorder,and panic disorder

Body dysmorphic disorder falls under the category of obsessive–compulsive and related disorders, yet research has suggested it may also be highly associated with social anxiety disorder. The current study examined body image variables among 68 outpatients with primary obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD; n = 22), social anxiety disorder (SAD; n = 25), and panic disorder (PD; n = 21). Participants filled out self-report measures of body image disturbance, attitudes toward one's appearance, and anxiety. Body image disturbance and attitudes toward appearance did not significantly differ between the groups. However, SAD symptoms predicted body image disturbance, Appearance Evaluation and Body Areas Satisfaction, and OCD symptoms predicted Appearance Orientation. These findings suggest that SAD and OCD may be associated with different facets of body image. Implications for the treatment of anxiety disorders and for future research are discussed.