Negative attributes are gendered too: Conceptualizing and measuring positive and negative facets of sex‐role identity

Measures of gender identity have almost exclusively relied on positive aspects of masculinity and femininity, although conceptually the self‐concept is not limited to positive attributes. A theoretical argument is made for considering negative attributes of gender identity, followed by five studies developing the Positive–Negative Sex‐Role Inventory (PN‐SRI) as a new measure of gender identity. Study 1 demonstrated that many of the attributes of a German version of the Bem Sex‐Role Inventory are no longer considered to differ in desirability for men and women. For the PN‐SRI, Study 2 elicited attributes characterizing men and women in today's society, for which ratings of typicality and desirability as well as self‐ratings by men and women were obtained in Study 3. Study 4 examined the reliability and factorial structure of the four subscales of positive and negative masculinity and femininity and demonstrated the construct and discriminant validity of the PN‐SRI by showing that the negative masculinity and femininity scales were unique predictors of select validation constructs. Study 5 showed that the new instrument explained variance in the validation constructs beyond earlier measures of gender identity. Key message: Even in the construction of negative aspects of gender identity, individuals prefer gender‐congruent attributes. Negative masculinity and femininity make a unique contribution to understanding gender‐related differences in psychological outcome variables. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Masculinity and Self‐Esteem in Israeli Jewish Professional Women 1

The literature suggests that while women experience unique challenges with self‐esteem and self‐acceptance, Jewish professional women in Israel face additional challenges in balancing majority culture values, ethnic traditions, and the socio‐historical‐political context of the country. The present study investigated differences in masculinity, femininity, locus of control, self‐esteem, and self‐acceptance among Israeli Jewish and other professional women, including professional women scientists. Masculinity scores were significantly lower for Israeli Jewish women, and self‐acceptance scores were significantly lower for Israeli Jewish women than for the group of professional women.     

Gendered Self-Concept and the Aggressive Expression of Driving Anger: Positive Femininity Buffers Negative Masculinity

The aggressive expression of driving anger is a risk factor for aggressive and dangerous driving behavior and is associated with a greater risk of accident involvement. The present study related positive and negative facets of a masculine and feminine self-concept to aggressive and adaptive forms of anger expression while driving. A sample of 417 drivers (194 women, 46.5%) in Germany completed the Positive-Negative Sex Role Inventory (PN-SRI) as a measure of positive and negative masculinity and femininity and the Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) as a measure of driving anger expression. Aggressive forms of expressing driving anger were unrelated to gender but differed significantly in relation to gendered self-concept. Negative but not positive masculinity was found to predict higher aggressive and lower adaptive anger expression. No main effects of positive or negative femininity were found. However, the link between negative masculinity and aggressive anger expression was buffered by positive femininity: Negative masculinity was unrelated to aggressive anger expression when accompanied by positive femininity. Adaptive anger expression showed negative links with negative masculinity and positive links with positive masculinity. The findings held for both men and women and support the theoretical distinction between positive and negative facets of the gendered self-concept. The implications for the conceptualization of both gendered self-concept and anger expression on the road are discussed.     

Relationships of Objective and Projective Dependency Scores to Sex Role Orientation in College Student Participants

Research on the dependency-sex rote orientation relationship indicates that when objective dependency measures are used, participants show positive correlations between dependency and femininity scores, and negative correlations between dependency and masculinity scores. In this study, a mixed-sex sample of 87 undergraduates (47 women and 40 men) completed widely used objective and projective measures of dependency, and a self-report measure of sex role orientation. Consistent with previous studies in this area, high objective dependency scores were associated with high femininity scores and low masculinity scores in participants of both sexes. There were no relationships between projective dependency scores and sex role orientation scores in participants of either sex. Findings are discussed in the context of theoretical frameworks that distinguish implicit dependency needs from "self-attributed" dependency needs. The role that sex role socialization experiences play in determining participants' willingness to acknowledge dependency-related traits and behaviors on self-report tests is also discussed.     

高中生父母教养方式、身体自我认知对性别角色发展的影响

采用问卷法对264名高中生进行调查,探讨了父母教养方式、身体自我认知对高中生性别角色发展的影响作用。结果发现:(1)从总体上,男生比女生更多地呈现出双性化发展的趋势;(2)母亲干涉保护,身体自我的力量、体育活动和自尊对男生的男性气质影响显著,而母亲温暖理解和身体自我的灵活对男生的女性气质影响显著;(3)身体自我的自尊会促进女生的男性气质特点,身体自我的力量对女生的女性气质有负向作用,身体自我的外表对女生的女性气质有正向影响。     

Gender Role Identity and Attitudes Toward Feminism

In this study we examined relationships among gender role identity, support for feminism, nontraditional gender roles, and willingness to consider oneself a feminist in a sample of college students (N=301). For female participants, we found positive relationships among higher masculinity on the PAQ (Personal Attributes Questionnaire), nontraditional attitudes toward gender roles, and the combined SRAI (Sex Role Attitudinal Inventory). A negative correlation was also found between lower scores on the PAQ masculinity–femininity index and the combined SRAI in women. For male participants, we found positive relationships among high femininity on the SIS (Sexual Identity Scale), willingness to consider oneself a feminist, positive attitudes toward the women's movement, and the combined SRAI. We also found a negative relationship between high masculinity on the PAQ and willingness to consider oneself a feminist in men. The implications of these findings for the feminist movement are discussed.     

Sex-role related personality traits and irrationality

Among undergraduate psychology students, masculinity and femininity scores on the Personal Attributes Questionnaire were correlated with a measure of irrational value orientation. Both for women and men significant negative correlations between masculinity and irrationality were found. Feminity and irrationality proved to be unrelated in both sex groups. Finally, no interaction effect of masculinity and feminity on irrationality was obtained.     

The Relationships Between Codependency and Femininity and Masculinity

Feminist writers critical of the codependency model have argued that codependency refers to an overly strong conformity to the traditional feminine role. Canonical correlation analysis using data from 192 first-year university students found a moderate association between codependency and gender-role identification. The specific nature of this association varied with different aspects of codependency. External focus (approval seeking) was associated with high scores on the negative aspects of femininity and low scores on positive aspects of masculinity. Self-sacrificing was associated with high positive femininity and low negative masculinity. Women scored higher than men on one aspect of codependency: external focus. Although the data are broadly consistent with a feminist critique of codependency, the relationship between codependency and gender-role identification appears to be more complex than previously suggested.     

The Impact of Parental Status and Gender Role Orientation on Caring and Postconventional Reasoning in Young Marrieds

This study was designed to examine the influence of sex and gender role orientation on adoption of the ethic of care and on postconventional reasoning in married men and women, with and without children. Parental status was unrelated to gender role orientation in men but was associated with masculinity in women, such that women with children had lower masculinity scores. Adoption of an ethic of care in men was a function of gender role orientation, such that only androgynous men did not evidence lower caring scores when they had children. Caring scores in women were a function of both parental status and masculinity, such that women with children who were high in masculinity evidenced lower caring scores. Postconventional reasoning as assessed by P scores on three dilemmas from the Defining Issues Test (DIT) were only influenced by sex and age but not by gender role orientation. Postconventional reasoning as assessed by ratings of all postconventional statements (R scores) was influenced by both sex and gender role orientation; in men, masculinity and femininity interacted such that androgynous and undifferentiated men evidenced higher R scores when they had no children, but only androgynous men with children evidenced high R scores. In women, gender role orientation did not impact R scores and neither did parental status. Multiple regressions indicated that for women, the interaction of masculinity and femininity, and caring scores, accounted for a significant amount of the variance in R scores. In men, none of the variables entered the equation. The implications for both Gilligan’s and Bem’s theories are discussed.     

Gender-role conflict and gender-role orientation in a sample of gay men

This exploratory study was designed to examine the relationship between gender role dimensions derived from the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and the 4 dimensions of gender role conflict represented on the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) using a sample (N = 400) composed of exclusively gay men. Results from regression of 3 BSRI scores (femininity, social masculinity, personal masculinity) on the 4 subscale scores of the GRCS indicated that gender role conflict was most strongly and positively associated with the negative aspect of masculinity (social masculinity), accounting for about 11% of variability in social masculinity scores. In particular, the success-power-competition dimension of the GRCS was the major predictor of social masculinity in gay men. Gender role conflict was also strongly but negatively associated with femininity, accounting for approximately 10% of the variance in femininity scores among the men in the sample. Implications and recommendations for further studies are discussed.     

Sex role patterns in an Irish student sample as measured by the bem sex role inventory (comparisons with an American sample)

Sex roles in 171 male and 180 female university students in Ireland were examined by the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). The distribution of scores for masculinity and femininity showed the same general pattern as in American samples. However, the Irish males rated themselves significantly lower in masculinity and significantly higher in femininity than the American males, indicating a more androgynous profile. Irish females rated themselves significantly lower than American females in both masculinity and femininity, and were less androgynous relative to Irish males. The distribution of subjects on sex role types showed a larger percentage of androgynous males and undifferentiated females in the Irish sample than in American samples. Both the male and the female Irish students scored lower than American students on the Social Desirability Scale. Separate scores were calculated for the positive and the negative items of the Social Desirability Scale, and it was found that positive items were assigned considerably higher ratings than the negative (reversed) items in both sexes. When controlled for social desirability, the masculinity and femininity scores were found to be uncorrelated. Factor analysis of the BSRI revealed six factors, which correspond to previous findings. In general, the present results support the view that masculinity and femininity, as measured by the BSRI, can be treated as separate dimensions, but that a more complex model than the two-factor structure is required.This is a joint report from the Psychosomatic Unit of the Irish Foundation for Human Development, Dublin; the Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm; and the Department of Psychology, University of Stockholm. This collaboration was made possible by a twinning grant to Dr. John Cullen and Professor Marianne Frankenhaeuser from the European Training Programme in Brain and Behavior Research, European Science Foundation. Financial support was also obtained as grants from the Swedish Medical Research Council (Project No. 979) and the Swedish Council for Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences. The authors are indebted to Professor Desmond Swan, University College, Dublin, for his generous support, particularly during the initial stages of our work, and to Professor Liam Ryan, Maynooth College, who also gave valuable assistance.     

Ratings of self and peers on sex role attributes and their relation to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and femininity.

Male (N = 248) and female (N = 282) subjects were given the Personal Attributes Questionnaire consisting of 55 bipolar attributes drawn from the Sex Role Stereotype Questionnaire by Rosenkrantz, Vogel, Bee, Broverman, and Broverman and were asked to rate themselves and then to compare directly the typical male and female college student. Self-ratings were divided into male-valued (stereotypically masculine attributes judged more desirable for both sexes), female-valued, and sex-specific items. Also administered was the Attitudes Toward Women Scale and a measure of social self-esteem. Correlations of the self-ratings with stereotype scores and the Attitudes Toward Women Scale were low in magnitude, suggesting that sex role expectations do not distort self-concepts. For both men and women, "femininity" on the female-valued self items and "masculinity" on the male-valued items were positively correlated, and both significantly related to self-esteem. The implications of the results for a concept of masculinity and femininity as a duality, characteristic of all individuals, and the use of the self-rating scales for measuring masculinity, femininity, and androgyny were discussed.     

Differences Between and Within Genders in Gender Role Orientation According to Age and Level of Education

This study analyses the masculinity and femininity in a Spanish sample made up of 164 adult workers (88 men and 76 women). To be specific, the objective was to demonstrate whether age and level of education were related to differences in masculinity and femininity, both when comparing between the two genders and when the comparisons are made within the same gender. The results indicated that the two variables predicted differences in women, but not in men. There were only differences between genders in masculinity and femininity between the ages of 20 and 39, and when the level of education is low. The results appear to support Hofstede’s hypothesis that there are fewer differences between genders in gender role orientation in feminine countries.     

Androgyny and creativity: a study of the relationship between a balanced sex-role and creative functioning

The relationship between creativity and androgyny was studied in 163 women and men with the Creative Functioning Test (CFT) and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). A 2 (femininity: high/low) x 2 (masculinity: high/low) x 2 (sex) ANOVA was conducted on subjects' CFT scores. A significant interaction effect between femininity and masculinity was found showing that subjects high on both femininity and masculinity (androgynous) and low on both scales (undifferentiated) reached higher CFT scores than female-typed and male-typed subjects. Further, a significant three-way interaction including sex of subject indicated that the former two-way interaction was accounted for by men only.     

Masculinity, femininity, and women scientists' self-esteem and self-acceptance

The literature suggests women scientists are a unique population. The present study investigated differences in self-esteem, self-acceptance, masculinity and femininity among several sample populations of women, including scientists (n = 62), professionals (other than scientists) (n = 89), college students (n = 83), clients (n = 52), and victims of domestic violence (n = 57). The Personal Orientation Inventory (Shostrom, 1974) and Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974) were administered to subjects, together with a demographic data sheet. An ANOVA was used to investigate differences between women scientists and other groups of women, and correlations were used to examine the relationship of masculinity and femininity with self-esteem and self-acceptance. Masculinity was found to correlate with self-esteem for all but the student group and with self-acceptance for all but the student and scientist group. Self-acceptance scores were significantly lower for women scientists than for professional and student groups, and femininity scores were significantly lower for scientists than for all other groups of women.     

Predictors of women's aggressive driving behavior

Predictors of women's aggressive driving behavior were explored in a study involving 256 female motorists. Sex role orientation, dispositional aggressiveness, age, and annual mileage were measured as independent variables, and aggressive driving behavior was included as the dependent variable. Stepwise hierarchical regression analysis showed that age was negatively related to driving aggression, whereas annual mileage had a positive relationship with driving aggression. Dispositional aggressiveness was a significant predictor of driving aggression. Of the two components of sex role orientation, only femininity was associated with driving aggression, with higher femininity scores predicting lower aggressive driving scores. Masculinity failed to predict aggressive driving, as did the interaction of masculinity and femininity. In combination, the predictors explained 29% of the variance in women's aggressive driving. The results are discussed with respect to the role of dispositional variables as predictors of driving aggression in women. Aggress. Behav. 00:1–10, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Negative and positive components of psychological masculinity and femininity and their relationships to self-reports of neurotic and acting out behaviors

Negatively valued masculinity (M-) and femininity (F-) personality scales were developed to supplement the positively valued Masculinity (M+) and Femininity (F+) scales of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ; Spence & Helmreich). M- consisted of traits that had been judged to be (a) more typical of males than females, (b) undesirable in both sexes, and (c ) agentic or instrumental in content. Two F- scales were developed, both containing stereotypically feminine, undesirable traits, one set of traits referring to communionlike characteristics (Fc-) and the other to verbal passive-aggressive qualities (FVA-). Significant sex differences in the predicted direction were found on all scales. In both sexes, low and typically nonsignificant correlations were found between parallel positive and negative scales, but highly significant negative correlations were found between positive and negative cross-sex scales. These findings provide additional evidence for the multidimentionslity of masculinity and femininity. Scores on a self-esteem measure were positively correlated with M+ and F+, uncorrelated with M-, and negatively correlated with the F- scales. Different patterns of scores were associated with two types of problem behaviors. In both sexes, neuroticism was most highly correlated (in a negative direction) with M+, and acting out behavoir was most strongly correlated (in a positive direction) with M-. The next highest correlation in both instances was with FVA-.     

Masculinity and femininity as factors in feminism

The relationship between feminism and sex roles was explored in two studies. In female college students, sex-role types were measured by Baucom's (1976) MSC and FMN scales and by Bem's Sex-Role Inventory (Bem, 1974). Feminism was measured by the Attitude Toward Women Scale (AWS, Short Form) (Spence & Helmreich, 1972) and the Women's Liberation Scale (WLS) (Goldberg, 1976). Two groups of women were predicted to be more profeminist than others. (a) those scoring high on both masculinity and femininity and (b) those scoring high on masculinity and low on femininity. Results of the study supported both hypotheses using the AWS but not the WLS. In the second study, MSC and FMN served as the basis for forming sex-role types, and feminism was measured by participation in NOW. Again, a large number of women high on masculinity and low on femininity were feminists: however, women high on both masculinity and femininity were underrepresented in NOW. Different results in the two studies are discussed in terms of the different ways that feminism was measured.     

Androgyny and Derived Identity in Married Women with Varying Degrees of Non-Traditional Role Involvement

Three groups of women—(1) wives with no outside employment, (2) wives employed in non-professional occupations, and (3) wives employed in professional occupations—were administered the Derived Identity Questionnaire (DIQ) and the Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). The two working groups revealed less "derived identity" than did the non-employed group, although the difference was only marginally significant. On the BSRI it was found that while the obtained femininity scores were essentially equal and high for the three groups, masculinity increased as a direct function of degree of departure from the housewife role. This finding led to the conclusion that working wives (especially professionals) are more "androgynous" than non-working wives. Finally, the signed difference between the masculinity and femininity scores and the DIQ scores were correlated positively, indicative of a negative relationship between derived identity and androgyny.     

Social role and birth cohort influences on gender-linked personality traits in women: a 20-year longitudinal analysis

Growth curve modeling was used to examine the impact of social role experiences (e.g., marital support, occupational prestige) and birth cohort on mean-level differences and age-related changes in positive personality traits indicative of either femininity or masculinity in 758 mothers heterogeneous in age, assessed 4 times over 2 decades. Both femininity and masculinity increased significantly from mean ages 39 through 59; each was predictive of an age change in the other. Low masculinity was associated with a more rapid increase in femininity, whereas high occupational prestige decreased the magnitude of association between masculinity and femininity. Femininity increased with more marital support but decreased with unmarried status, more children at home, and working full or part time; among full-time workers, that effect was modified by marital support. Masculinity increased with full-time work and high occupational prestige. A trend for differing levels of femininity, and contrasting associations of masculinity with femininity and marital conflict in women born after 1944 compared with those born earlier, suggests shifting social norms and gender relations in the marital role.