元认知训练的动机增强效应

如何激发学习动机是当前教育工作者、心理学研究者都很关注的一个问题。干预动机变量已经被证明是一种可行的方法,我们认为,认知干预也是激发学习动机的一种有效途径。为了检验这一假设,本研究对47名初二学生进行为期三周的数学元认知训练。差异显著性检验表明,在元认知训练中,被试的动机和元认知都有一定改善;路径分析进一步表明,元认知的改善导致了动机的改善。这一结论为动机激发这一现实问题提供了一条新思路,并且使我们对于元认知与动机的关系形成了更为全面的认识。     

Test anxiety and metacognitive skillfulness: Availability versus production deficiencies

Abstract

This paper focuses on the role of metacognition in test anxiety. In two experiments, the metacognitive skillfulness of high vs. low test-anxious secondary school students was contrasted. Low test-anxious subjects exhibited a superior metacognitive skillfulness during math performance relative to high test-anxious subjects. Furthermore, differences in metacognitive skillfulness were performance related. In order to unravel causality in the relation between metacognition and test anxiety, two types of test-anxious students may be distinguished analogous to Naveh-Benjamin (1991). Type-1 students would lack metacognitive skills (availability deficiency), through which they experience failure and develop test anxiety. Type-2 students would experience task irrelevant thoughts, which causes cognitive interference with available metacognitive skills (production deficiency). Results of Study 1 reveal that metacognitive cueing may represent an adequate method for the identification of both types. Due to time-constraints, metacognitive cueing in Study 2 failed to do so.     

Gender gap in reading achievement: the mediating role of metacognitive strategies and reading-related attitudes

The purpose of this study is to explain the gender differences in reading achievement with the mediating role of metacognitive strategies and reading-related attitudes. Hypotheses were tested with 6890 students [3396 (49.3%) females, 3494 (50.7%) males] who participated in PISA 2018 in Turkey. The path analysis results indicated that gender had significant associations with metacognitive strategies and reading-related attitudes. One remarkable result is that gender affected metacognitive strategies about lower cognitive levels more than strategies about higher cognitive levels, and that the female advantage was reduced for upper metacognitive strategies. Additionally, reading-related attitudes, except for perception of reading competence, and metacognitive strategies were significantly associated with reading achievement. In addition, the results revealed that metacognitive strategies and reading-related attitudes, except for perception of reading competence, fully mediated gender and reading achievement. Overall, the results show that the gender difference in reading achievement is not only due to gender itself, but may also be due to differentiation of the metacognitive strategies and reading-related attitudes of girls and boys. As a result, the teaching of metacognitive strategies and development of reading-related attitudes to students are recommended, in order to reduce the gender gap in reading achievement. Limitations, practical implications, and recommendations for future research are discussed.

     

先入观念对情绪感染力的调节——以教学活动为例

从以往意识性情绪感染的研究中可以推断出, 情绪感染可以被后继的“观念”所调节, 这种观念可以被无意识提取, 那么情绪感染能不能被“先入观念”所调节呢, 即观念先于情绪感染而存在并对情绪感染的最终效果产生影响。实验情境以教学活动为例, 采用被试内设计, 通过实验前的指导语引导学生树立两种教师评价--“权威”教师(积极的先入观念)和“新手”教师(消极的先入观念), 然后给学生播放两位教师的三类教学视频--中性情绪、积极情绪、消极情绪的朗诵视频, 使用BioNeuro八通道生物反馈仪记录学生在观看视频时的生理指标, 每段视频播放后, 要求学生完成《教师课堂情绪感染力评价问卷(学生用)》。实验结果表明, 学生在观看“权威”教师视频时, 其注意力水平不受教师情绪效价的影响, 学生对“权威”教师均能保持较高的“专注”状态, 从而提高了“权威”教师的积极情绪感染力(易感性调节), 而对“新手”教师的“专注”程度较低, 从而削弱了“新手”教师的积极情绪感染力(免疫性调节)。“新手”教师的消极情绪感染力(倦怠)比“权威”教师的消极情绪感染力更强, 这与学生对“权威”教师的消极情绪进行“合理化”解释有关, 从而免疫了“权威”教师的消极情绪感染力。问卷调查结果也表明, 学生对“权威”教师的情绪感染力评价(无论是中性、积极或消极视频)要极其显著好于对“新手”教师的评价。由此说明, 先入观念对情绪感染的调节方式有两种：“专注”和“合理化”, 调节的结果也有两种：“易感性”与“免疫性”。     

大学生第二外语词汇学习中的测试效应

本研究采用学习-测试研究范式,以"Swahili-汉语"配对词为实验材料,考察不同实验条件测试对大学生第二外语词汇习得的促进作用。研究发现:(1)不同实验条件的累积回忆正确率相同;(2)测试效应显著,且对长时保持具有促进作用;(3)被试对不同实验条件的学习效果的预期与事实不相符。这些结果表明,自我测试既有助于学生高效习得第二外语词汇,又有助于教师改善课堂教学。     

Interpretation of Scientific or Mathematical Concepts: Cognitive Issues and Instructional Implications

Scientific and mathematical concepts are significantly different from everyday concepts and are notoriously difficult to learn. It is shown that particular instances of such concepts can be identified or generated by different possible modes of concept interpretation. Some of these modes use formally explicit knowledge and thought processes; others rely on less formal case-based knowledge and more automatic recognition processes. The various modes differ in attainable precision, likely errors, and ease of use. A combination of such modes can be used to formulate an “ideal” model for interpreting scientific concepts both reliably and efficiently. Comparisons are made with the actual concept interpretations of expert scientists and novice students. The discussion elucidates some cognitive and metacognitive reasons why the learning of scientific or mathematical concepts is difficult. It also suggests instructional guidelines for teaching such concepts more effectively.     

Reducing Test Anxiety in School Settings: A Controlled Pilot Study Examining a Group Format Delivery of the Attention Training Technique Among Adolescent Students

Researchers have called for the examination of test anxiety interventions that extend beyond the delivery of individual services by a trained professional. Following from conceptual models and research findings underscoring the importance of metacognitive beliefs to test anxiety, a controlled pilot study examined whether a group format delivery of the attention training technique (ATT) component of metacognitive therapy reduces test anxiety among eighth-grade students. Students completed baseline study measures and were allocated based upon class period to five sessions of ATT (n = 39) or a music listening control (n = 34) delivered within a group format during a school week. Students completed postintervention study measures on the final day of the intervention and completed follow-up study measures approximately 3 weeks following the intervention. As predicted, students receiving ATT reported less postintervention test anxiety than the control when they held stronger baseline metacognitive beliefs about worry. The patterns of findings held at the follow-up and when specifically examining the cognitive (i.e., worry) dimension of test anxiety. Study results suggest that ATT may be a viable test anxiety intervention for students holding heightened metacognitive beliefs about worry. Future directions are discussed.     

Reflections on teaching health care ethics on the web

As web instruction becomes more and more prevalent at universities across the country, instructors of ethics are being encouraged to develop online courses to meet the needs of a diverse array of students. Web instruction is often viewed as a cost-saving technique, where large numbers of students can be reached by distance education in an effort to conserve classroom and instructor resources. In practice. however, the reverse is often true: online courses require more of faculty time and effort than do many traditional classes. Based on personal experience teaching an online course in health care ethics for students in the Allied Health Professions, it is evident that there are both benefits and challenges in teaching online courses, particularly in ethics. Examples of benefits are (1) the asynchronous nature of web instruction allows students to progress through the course at their own pace and at times that are convenient given their clinical responsibilities; (2) web courses allow for a standardization of content and quality of instruction over a diversity of programs; and (3) examples can be tailored to the differing experiences of students in the course. Some challenges to teaching online ethics courses include (1) the fact that online instruction benefits visual learners and disadvantages those lacking good reading comprehension or strong writing skills; (2) developing meaningful student-student and student-instructor interaction; and (3) teaching ethics involves teaching a process rather than a product. Allowing students to apply their knowledge to real-world cases in their disciplines and encouraging them to share experiences from clinical practice is an effective way to meet several of these challenges. Building an online community is another good way to increase the interaction of students and their engagement with the material.     

Metacognition in Taiwan: students' calibration of comprehension and performance

Researchers have increasingly investigated the role played by metacognition in students' learning and performance. Metacognition is comprised of metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences, and both components of metacognition are viewed as being important to learning and performance in academic settings. Metacognitive experiences involve, in part, students' awareness of progress on cognitive tasks. Such awareness is critical to learning, for students may fail to spend additional time reviewing or studying material if they believe they have understood the material adequately. In the present study we examined Taiwanese students' ability to assess their comprehension of passages following reading as well as their ability to predict the number of questions they would be able to answer about passage content. Following an actual test on the material, students were asked to assess how many questions they felt they answered correctly about a passage (postdiction). Students were able to predict comprehension and test performance at better than chance levels and were more accurate at postdiction than prediction. Students with better performance, as measured by comprehension test scores, were better at both prediction and postdiction of comprehension performance. However, students' self-assessments of general calibration ability did not relate to their test performance. The metacomprehension skills of Taiwanese students were quite similar to those previously found for western students, but also diverged in some respects.     

METACOGNITIVE PROCESSES: TEACHING STRATEGIES IN LITERACY EDUCATION COURSES

This study chronicles 10 undergraduate university students and their understanding and application of metacognition and executive control in reading. Students from two undergraduate reading classes from two different states received intensive instruction in metacognitive strategies which highlighted metacognition and executive control in the reading process. To document their understanding and application, students engaged in: 1) think-aloud analyses; 2) sharing of metacognition journals of their outside reading habits; and 3) developing metacognitive strategies. Additionally, the university students tutored young readers in order to apply their knowledge of activities learned in class and they kept a journal for all sessions. Finally, the university students responded to a case study that recommended reading activities and diagnostic teaching strategies for the young reader profiled in the case study. Results from the above data sources indicated that while university students understood and applied metacognitive strategies in their personal reading and were aware of these strategies that made them strategic readers, they applied little of these strategies to the tutoring and case study situations. These students appeared to operate under two definitions of the reading process witnessed through what they did and what they attempted to teach their tutees.     

Self‐regulated learning of basic arithmetic skills: A longitudinal study

Background. Several studies have examined young primary school children's use of strategies when solving simple addition and subtraction problems. Most of these studies have investigated students’ strategy use as if they were isolated processes. To date, we have little knowledge about how math strategies in young students are related to other important aspects in self‐regulated learning. Aim. The main purpose of this study was to examine relations between young primary school children's basic mathematical skills and their use of math strategies, their metacognitive competence and motivational beliefs, and to investigate how students with basic mathematics skills at various levels differ in respect to the different self‐regulation components. Sample. The participants were comprised of 27 Year 2 students, all from the same class. Method. The data were collected in three stages (autumn Year 2, spring Year 2, and autumn Year 3). The children's arithmetic skills were measured by age relevant tests, while strategy use, metacognitive competence, and motivational beliefs were assessed through individual interviews. The participants were divided into three performance groups; very good students, good students, and not‐so‐good students. Results. Analyses revealed that young primary school children at different levels of basic mathematics skill may differ in several important aspects of self‐regulated learning. Analyses revealed that a good performance in addition and subtraction was related not only to the children's use of advanced mathematics strategies, but also to domain‐specific metacognitive competence, ability attribution for success, effort attribution for failure, and high perceived self‐efficacy when using specific strategies. Conclusions. The results indicate that instructional efforts to facilitate self‐regulated learning of basic arithmetic skills should address cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational aspects of self‐regulation. This is particularly important for low‐performing students.     

Fostering Analytic Metacognitive Processes and Reducing Overconfidence by Disfluency: The Role of Contrast Effects

Overconfidence leads to premature termination of study and, thus, to decreased performance. The aim of the present study is to improve students' monitoring and control. We assume that disfluency fosters analytic metacognitive processes and thus reduces overconfidence. However, we expect that contrast effects moderate the fluency effects on metacognitive processes because disfluency activates analytic metacognitive processes not only for disfluent but also for succeeding fluent learning material. To test our hypotheses, university students (N = 75) learned either with a fluent text first and afterward a disfluent text or with a disfluent text first and afterward a fluent text. The results show fluency effects on control, monitoring, and monitoring accuracy only when students learned with a fluent and afterward a disfluent text. Performance was worse for disfluent than for fluent texts in both conditions. Therefore, instructional settings that help students to implement accurate monitoring into better control and better performance are required. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Are judgments of learning made after correct responses during retrieval practice sensitive to lag and criterion level effects?

Although successful retrieval practice is beneficial for memory, various factors (e.g., lag and criterion level) moderate this benefit. Accordingly, the efficacy of retrieval practice depends on how students use retrieval practice during learning, which in turn depends on accurate metacognitive monitoring. The present experiments evaluated the extent to which judgments of learning (JOLs) made after correct responses are sensitive to factors (i.e., lag and criterion level) that moderate retrieval practice effects, as well as which cues influence JOLs under these conditions. Participants completed retrieval practice for word pairs with either short or long lags between practice trials until items were correctly recalled 1, 3, 6, or 9 times. After the criterion trial for an item, participants judged the likelihood of recalling that item on the final test 1 week later. JOLs showed correct directional sensitivity to criterion level, with both final test performance and JOLs increasing as criterion level increased. However, JOLs showed incorrect directional sensitivity to lag, with greater performance but lower JOLs for longer versus shorter lags. Additionally, results indicated that retrieval fluency and metacognitive beliefs about criterion level--but not lag--influenced JOLs.     

Metacognitive monitoring of attention performance and its influencing factors

Metacognitive monitoring is a central element of metacognitive processing exerting widespread influences on information processing. Albeit being subject to numerous empirical investigations referring to memory performance, there is little research investigating metacognitive monitoring in other cognitive domains. The present study investigated in 45 healthy students whether factors that are known to influence monitoring of memory performance, i.e. task difficulty, time of assessment, and practice, also exhibit a significant impact on monitoring of attention performance. A multivariate analysis of variance with three within-subject repeated measures factors on two dependent variables (monitoring of (a) time, and (b) errors in an attention task) was conducted. Results showed that monitoring ability significantly decreased with increasing task difficulty, was significantly better for post than for pre-assessment, and significantly increased with practice. Therefore, results suggest that the examined factors influenced monitoring of attention performance equivalent to the influence of these factors found in metamemory research.     

Tape‐assisted reciprocal teaching: Cognitive bootstrapping for poor decoders

Background: Students who have limited skills in decoding and comprehension and who lack motivation to read present difficulties for practitioners. Difficulties may be compounded when these students lack access to age‐appropriate and interesting text and have lost the notion of reading as a process of obtaining meaning from print. Aims: This research examined the effects of a modified reciprocal teaching intervention for readers with poor decoding skills and poor comprehension. Tapeassisted reciprocal teaching was used to help students with poor decoding skills develop cognitive and metacognitive strategies and improve their comprehension of high interest expository texts. Methods: Two single‐subject research design studies involving four groups of students were conducted. Study I involved one experimental group and Study II was a multiple baseline design involving three experimental groups. Sample: Each experimental group comprised a heterogeneous mix of six students, three with poor decoding skills and three with adequate decoding skills, all of whom showed poor comprehension. Results: As a result of the tape‐assisted reciprocal teaching, the poor decoders demonstrated improved application of cognitive and metacognitive strategies and improved comprehension. These improvements were shown on both researcherdeveloped and standardised tests as well as on maintenance and transfer measures. The students with adequate decoding skills also showed improvements in comprehension. Conclusions: The success of the intervention for poor decoders suggests that tape assisted reciprocal teaching may be seen as a form of ‘cognitive bootstrapping’ to enable poor readers to escape the cycle of reading failure and engage more meaningfully in the process of reading.     

Metacognition in the classroom: The association between students’ exam predictions and their desired grades

Students are overconfident when making grade predictions, and worse, the lowest-performing students are generally the most overconfident. Because metacognitive accuracy is associated with academic performance, multiple studies have attempted to improve metacognitive accuracy with mixed results. However, these studies may be of limited use because we do not understand the types of information university students use to make performance predictions. The current studies examined the possibility that university students’ predictions are associated with their desires—the grade they want to receive. Studies 1–4 demonstrated that students’ desired grades were strongly associated with their grade predictions across different courses, universities, and measurement strategies. Study 4 also showed that, if warned about the previous results, students could reduce their reliance on their desired grades and improve the accuracy of their predictions relative to control. Together, results demonstrated that students’ exam predictions are associated with their desired grades.     

Instructional support for novice law students: Reducing search processes and explaining concepts in cases

Reasoning about legal cases is a complex skill that imposes a high working memory load, especially for novice students. Not only do novices lack necessary conceptual knowledge, searching through the information sources that are used during reasoning can also be assumed to impose a high additional working memory load that does not contribute to learning. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of supporting novice law students' learning by (a) providing the meaning of important concepts in the case and (b) reducing the search process by providing a condensed (relevant articles only) rather than a complete civil code. Results show that performance on a test case (for which they had to use the complete civil code) was significantly better for participants who had used the condensed civil code during learning. Performance on a conceptual knowledge post‐test was significantly enhanced when students had received the concept explanations during learning. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

不同民族中学生英语阅读的元认知意识研究

采用英语阅读的元认知意识问卷对汉族、纳西族和彝族中学生进行测查。结果表明：(1)3种民族中学生英语阅读的元认知意识水平随着年级的升高呈现出提高的趋势;(2)3种民族男女生英语阅读的元认知意识水平整体上具有一致性,但在有些项目上却呈现出女生优于男生的趋势;(3)汉族与纳西族中学生英语阅读的元认知意识水平整体上具有一致性,彝族中学生英语阅读的元认知意识水平呈现出优于汉族和纳西族的趋势。     

Judgments of learning are significantly higher following feedback on relatively good versus relatively poor trials despite no actual learning differences

Studies have consistently shown that prospective metacognitive judgments of learning are often inaccurate because humans mistakenly interpret current performance levels as valid indices of learning. These metacognitive discrepancies are strongly related to conditions of practice. Here, we examined how the type of feedback (after good versus poor trials) received during practice and awareness (aware versus unaware) of this manipulation affected judgments of learning and actual learning. After each six-trial block, participants received feedback on their three best trials or three worst trials and half of the participants were made explicitly aware of the type of feedback they received while the other half were unaware. Judgments of learning were made at the end of each six-trial block and before the 24-h retention test. Results indicated no motor performance differences between groups in practice or retention; however, receiving feedback on relatively good compared to relatively poor trials resulted in significantly higher judgments of learning in practice and retention, irrespective of awareness. These results suggest that KR on relatively good versus relatively poor trials can have dissociable effects on judgments of learning in the absence of actual learning differences, even when participants are made aware of their feedback manipulation.     

Metacognitive monitoring during criterion learning: When and why are judgments accurate?

Research on metacognitive judgment accuracy during retrieval practice has increased in recent years. However, prior work had not systematically evaluated item-level judgment accuracy and the underlying bases of judgment accuracy in a criterion-learning paradigm (in which items are practiced until correctly recalled during encoding). Understanding these relationships during criterion learning has important theoretical implications for self-regulated learning frameworks, and also has applied implications for student learning: If the factors that influence metacognitive judgments are not predictive of subsequent test performance, students may make poor decisions during self-regulated learning. In the present experiments, participants engaged in test–restudy practice until items were recalled correctly. Once a given item reached criterion, participants made an immediate or delayed judgment of learning (JOL) for the item. A final cued-recall test occurred 30 min later. We examined judgment accuracy (the relationship between JOLs and test performance) and the underlying bases of judgment accuracy by evaluating cue utilization (the relationship between cues and JOLs) and cue diagnosticity (the relationship between cues and test performance). Immediate JOLs were only modestly related to subsequent test performance, and further analyses revealed that the cues related to JOLs were only weakly predictive of test accuracy. However, delaying JOLs improved both the accuracy of the JOLs and the diagnosticity of the cues that influenced judgments.