社会认知理论的研究进展

社会认知是当前国内外心理学研究领域的热门课题之一。社会认知是指关于人和人的行为的知识和认知。随着研究的深入,社会认知研究的领域在不断地丰富。本文综合了近年来国内外有关方面的研究,阐述了社会认知的起源,主要理论,发展趋势。     

基于认知负荷理论的交互式多媒体学习环境设计

交互式多媒体学习环境能动态地对学习者的学习活动给予反馈，并允许一定程度的学习者控制，对多媒体学习的效果有一定的改善作用。本文阐述了交互式多媒体学习环境的内涵及其在设计中存在的一些问题，并对如何基于认知负荷理论建立有效的交互式多媒体学习环境提出了一些启示。     

隐性知识的具身机制、转化与管理

隐性知识是知识经济时代的发展关键,在多个学科的知识体系中占有重要位置。由于隐性知识有内隐表征、主观经验和情境性等多种跨层属性,导致管理学、体育学等学科面临隐性知识转化与管理的难题。隐性知识本质上是具身性的,身体经验与情境的互动为个体在知识系统中归纳与形成隐性知识提供了基础。隐性知识的提取与应用机制为组织对隐性知识的转化与管理提供了桥梁,而隐性知识的具身机制是其提取与应用的依据。本文将基于具身认知理论,结合多个学科的研究证据,对不同情境下的隐性知识提取与应用机制进行分析,旨在梳理出隐性知识的具身机制,并针对隐性知识的未来研究、转化与管理提出建议。     

数量认知和密度认知的关系

数量和密度认知的关系是数量认知研究的关键问题。相关研究在三个方面存在不足：首先, 先前实验研究缺乏对两种加工的有效操控和区分; 其次, 现有理论或认为“数量和密度加工完全独立”, 或认为“数量加工是对密度进行推论的结果”, 比较片面; 第三, 已有理论模型抽象, 不重视功能模块的解释。基于数量认知的多阶段加工特点, 未来研究可以讨论数量认知进行基于密度认知的整合加工的可能性, 提出整合数量和密度加工的理论构想。     

分布式认知——一种新的认知观点

分布式认知是指认知分布于个体内、个体间、媒介、环境、文化、社会和时间等之中。它是一种包括所有参与认知的事物的新的分析单元。该文首先简要介绍了分布式认知的概念及分布式认知的历史渊源;其次阐述了分布式认知和个体认知的关系,并介绍了描述这种关系的交互模型和同心圆模型;最后结合实例说明了分布式认知的理论研究意义和实际应用价值。     

动作知识的组织与提取及对认知的影响

在认知活动中,动作经验重新激活影响认知加工。本文综述了动作知识的组织和提取机制、动作经验影响认知活动的理论、动作知识对物体和词汇识别、空间知觉、记忆、注意的影响。未来研究可以从不同类型的动作知识对认知的影响、不同语言中动作词汇的认知机制等方面进行探索。     

教育认知诊断测验与认知模型一致性的评估

构建正确的认知模型是成功进行认知诊断的关键之一,如果认知诊断测验不能完整准确地代表这个认知模型,这个测验的效度就存在问题.属性及其层级可以表示一个认知模型.在认知模型正确基础上,给出了一个计量公式以衡量认知诊断测验能够多大程度上代表认知模型;对于不止包含一个知识状态的等价类及其形成原因进行了分析,对Cui等人的属性层级相合性指标(HCI)提出修改建议,以更好地探查数据与专家给出的认知模型的一致性.     

认知负荷视角下的知识反转效应

知识反转效应研究始于20世纪90年代中期, 在认知负荷的框架下对学习者先备知识与教学方法有效性之间的交互作用进行研究, 其研究范式起源于能力倾向与教学处置交互作用模型。认知负荷理论认为知识反转效应的产生是由于高先备知识者接受冗余教学而产生了额外的认知负荷, 动机理论却认为, 高先备知识者由于冗余的认知加工而产生的负荷可能是一种动机资源负荷。在优化外在认知负荷与相关认知负荷的教学设计中发现了大量知识反转效应的实验证据, 其教学的启示意义在于需要随着学习者领域知识的不断变化适宜性地调整教学方法。未来需要在完善研究方法、拓展研究领域的基础上, 整合研究成果以建立效应发生与发展的理论模型。     

社会认知的理论模型综述

社会认知一般涉及社会信息的辨别、归类、采择、判断、推理等心理成分,即林崇德所提出的涉及人对社会性客体之间的关系等的认知,以及对这种认知与人的社会行为之间的关系的理解和推断。关于社会认知的近期研究探讨了人们关于群体及其成员的知识是如何在记忆中表征以及该知识是如何在后继判断过程中使用等问题,并且形成了一些具有代表性的理论模型。     

认知神经心理学简介

认知神经心理学是认知心理学的一个分支。它的目的是探讨当人们执行认知活动的时候,心理信息加工过程是怎样的,所采用的手段是研究这些认知功能受损的病人。它与认知神经科学的不同在于：认知神经心理学关注的是心理（mind）,而认知神经科学关注的是大脑（特别是关注与认知有关的大脑机制）。研究认知神经心理学的方法也可以用于研究发展性认知障碍,如阅读障碍,或者特殊的语言损伤,这就是发展性认知神经心理学。这些方法还可以用于高级认知发面的研究,如信念形成和心理理论。这些高级认知方面的障碍是精神病学的范畴,因此这类研究错觉、幻想或虚构等的认知神经心理学叫做认知神经精神病学。认知神经心理学的典型特征有：1）研究症状,而不是并发症;2）采用个案研究,而不是群体研究;3）主要数据来源是症状间的双分离;4）致力于模块化认知模型的建立。     

文化对个体风险感知的影响:文化认知理论的解释

文化认知理论旨在从个体层面研究与文化因素相关的个体风险感知差异。它以"格-群"维度划分文化世界观,"格"维度衡量社会的制度化程度,"群"维度衡量社会群体对个体的影响程度,由此编制文化认知量表以测量个体文化理念差异。目前已验证认同保护认知、偏见同化与群体极化、文化易得性、文化可信性、文化认同确认五种作用机制,并在情感启发式研究的基础上引入文化冲突模因作为中介变量建立理论模型。后续研究可推进文化认知测量工具的跨文化检验与本土化修订,并在具体风险主题研究的基础上探索切实可行的公共风险管理对策。     

攻击行为社会信息加工模型与道德领域理论的整合

儿童攻击行为研究中Dodge等人提出的社会信息加工模型,强调社会交互作用情境下个体的信息加工过程与后来的社会行为之间的联系,对于信息加工所依据的数据库则缺乏系统的阐述。领域理论源于对道德认知的思考,将个体的社会知识分为道德、常规和个人三个领域,强调个体在领域认同标准和领域混合事件推理上的差异。Arsenio和Lemerise在情绪与社会信息加工模型整合的基础上,提出借鉴领域理论来说明数据库的内部结构以及其中的社会知识对于信息加工的影响。这些整合体现了认知和情绪在社会行为加工和决策过程中的交互作用,有利于说明存储在长时记忆中的社会知识之间的联系及作用,引发了对各种形式的内部心理成分的理论思考和多个实证研究方向,也为心理研究其他方面的整合工作提供了值得借鉴的研究思路     

心智化社会认知观的演变及发展——来自潜心智化的思考

社会认知的机制一直存在心智化与具身认知观点的争论。前者认为社会认知是对心理状态的推测,而后者则认为社会认知是具身实践活动。虽然,心智化研究者认为具身认知有关灵长类动物和婴儿的社会认知的解释可以兼容于内隐心智化,但内隐心智化在解释社会互动时仍然存在间接性的问题。近期,潜心智化理论旨在挑战上述立场中有关社会认知先天论的预设,该理论将个体的潜心智化视为内隐心智化的替代,通过检验与分析相关研究的构想效度,强调社会认知是从非社会性的一般认知功能中衍生而来的,这种立场在社会认知的领域特殊性与非社会认知的领域一般性之间建立起了纽带,从而挑战了心智化与具身认知的争论。未来研究应设计更为严谨的心智化研究方法并对其进行方法学验证,借助先进的技术手段,尝试在神经科学层面探索一般认知功能与社会认知的关系。     

Distributed primate cognition: a review

A model of "distributed cognition" is contrasted with the "mental representation" model exemplified by Tomasello and Call's Primate Cognition. Rather than using behavior as a basis for inferences to invisible mental events such as intentions, the distributed approach treats communicative interactions as, themselves, directly observable cognitive events. Similar to a Vygotskian approach, this model characterizes cognition as "co-constructed" by the participants. This approach is thus particularly suitable for studying primates (including humans), whose reliance on multiparty negotiations can undermine the researcher's ability to extrapolate from observable outcomes back to individual intentions. Detailed (e.g., frame-by-frame) analyses of such interactions reveal cross-species differences in the relevant media of information flow (e.g., behavioral coordination, relative gaze) as well as in the flexibility and complexity of the trajectories observed. Plus, with its focus on dynamics, the distributed approach is especially useful for modeling developmental and evolutionary processes. In discussing enculturation and the ontogeny of imitation, its emphasis is on changes in how expert and novice participate in such events, rather than how either may represent them. Primate cognitive evolution is seen as involving changes in context sensitivity, multi-tasking, and the coordination of social attention. Humans in particular – in, especially, the context of teaching – are seen as having specialized in linking co-perception with the refined sensory-motor coordination that enables them to translate observed behavior into strategically similar action. Highlighting the continuity between human and nonhuman development, this promising, complementary model enables us to tap the richness of micro-ethology as a cognitive science. Accepted after revision: 7 January 2001 Electronic Publication     

Exploring explicit learning strategies: A dissociative framework for research

To explain learning, comparative researchers invoke an associative construct by which immediate reinforcement strengthens animal's adaptive responses. In contrast, cognitive researchers freely acknowledge humans' explicit-learning capability to test and confirm hypotheses even lacking direct reinforcement. We describe a new dissociative framework that may stretch animals' learning toward the explicit pole of cognition. We discuss the neuroscience of reinforcement-based learning and suggest the possibility of disabling a dominant form of reinforcement-based discrimination learning. In that vacuum, researchers may have an opportunity to observe animals' explicit learning strategies (i.e., hypotheses, rules, task self-construals). We review initial research using this framework showing explicit learning by humans and perhaps by monkeys. Finally, we consider why complementary explicit and reinforcement-based learning systems might promote evolutionary and ecological fitness. Illuminating the evolution of parallel learning systems may also tell part of the story of the emergence of humans' extraordinary capacity for explicit-declarative cognition.     

Interactive Team Cognition

Cognition in work teams has been predominantly understood and explained in terms of shared cognition with a focus on the similarity of static knowledge structures across individual team members. Inspired by the current zeitgeist in cognitive science, as well as by empirical data and pragmatic concerns, we offer an alternative theory of team cognition. Interactive Team Cognition (ITC) theory posits that (1) team cognition is an activity, not a property or a product; (2) team cognition should be measured and studied at the team level; and (3) team cognition is inextricably tied to context. There are implications of ITC for theory building, modeling, measurement, and applications that make teams more effective performers.     

Ongoing development of social cognition in adolescence

Age differences in social cognition between adolescents and young adults were investigated. Two large groups of adolescents and young adults were given tasks of theory of mind and emotion recognition. In addition, to control for possibly related basic cognitive development, working memory, speed of processing, and verbal ability were assessed. A strong age effect was revealed across both measures of social cognition. Adolescents performed with a lower accuracy than adults. Further analyses indicated that those age differences remained significant even after controlling for basic cognitive abilities. Exploratory analyses indicated no influence of pubertal phase on social cognition. Results suggest ongoing development of social cognition across adolescence, independent of individual differences in more basic cognitive abilities.     

具身框架下的社会认知研究述评

具身理论是继计算隐喻、联结主义之后诠释人类是如何获取知识表征世界这样一个本质性问题的新视角, 指出概念系统的建构对真实身体及其身体活动的体验的依赖, 即具身性。随着认知科学的快速发展, 具身理论已从原始阶段的哲学思辨成为认知心理学、社会认知等领域解释各种现象的一种新的研究范式。文章简要回顾了具身理论的起源及发展, 选取了社会认知心理学中主要的研究对象, 即态度、社会知觉、情绪等, 总结具身理论在这些领域的研究范式及最新研究成果。最后, 文章从实证的角度指出在社会认知领域中以具身理论为框架开展实证研究时值得注意的要点, 并提出此类研究结合其他研究视角(例如, 神经科学, 跨文化心理学)的可能性。     

The molecules of social recognition memory: implications for social cognition, extended mind, and neuroethics

Social cognition, cognitive neuroscience, and neuroethics have reached a synthesis of late, but some troubling features are present. The neuroscience that currently dominates the study of social cognition is exclusively cognitive neuroscience, as contrasted with the cellular and increasingly molecular emphasis that has gripped mainstream neuroscience over the past three decades. Furthermore, the recent field of molecular and cellular cognition has begun to unravel some molecular mechanisms involved in social cognition, especially pertaining to the consolidation of memories of particular conspecific organisms. Some new experimental techniques for positive interventions into these hypothesized mechanisms offer opportunities for establishing direct causal linkages between intra-neuronal molecular events and the behaviors used to measure social cognitive phenomena. Predicted results from an experiment described below also cast doubt on the application of the “extended mind” approach from recent cognitive science to ground the neuroscience of social cognition. Since neuroethics relies heavily on our best neuroscience of social cognition, that field may soon need to extend its attention beyond cognitive neuroscience, and into neuroscience’s cellular and molecular mainstream.