Ethnic In-Group Favoritism Among Minority and Majority Groups: Testing the Self-Esteem Hypothesis Among Preadolescents

The self-esteem hypothesis in intergroup relations, as proposed by social identity theory (SIT), states that successful intergroup discrimination enhances momentary collective self-esteem. This hypothesis is a source of continuing controversy. Furthermore, although SIT is increasingly used to account for children's group attitudes, few studies have examined the hypothesis among children. In addition, the hypothesis's generality makes it important to study among children from different ethnic groups. The present study, conducted among Dutch and Turkish preadolescents, examined momentary collective self-feelings as a consequence of ethnic group evaluations. The results tended to support the self-esteem hypothesis. In-group favoritism was found to have a self-enhancing effect among participants high in ethnic identification. This result was found for ethnic majority (Dutch) and minority (Turkish) participants.     

The Puzzle of High Self-esteem Among Ethnic Minorities: Comparing Explicit and Implicit Self-esteem

This paper examines the puzzle of high self-esteem among ethnic minorities by making a distinction between the personal self and the collective self and between explicit and implicit self-esteem. The study was conducted among three groups of early adolescents: Dutch, Turkish-Dutch (of Turkish origin and living in the Netherlands), and Turkish participants living in Turkey. It was found that the Turkish-Dutch had scores similar to the Turks in Turkey except for measures of implicit collective self-esteem. Furthermore, the percentage of participants with high explicit and low implicit collective self-esteem was significantly greater among the Turkish-Dutch than among the other two samples. Additionally, for the Turkish-Dutch, perceived discrimination was negatively related to implicit collective self-esteem but not to other self-esteem measures. It is concluded that the distinctions between the personal and the collective self and between explicit and implicit self-esteem can improve our understanding of the psychological development of disadvantaged ethnic minority groups, and assist in making sense of otherwise puzzling findings in the literature.     

Self-esteem Among Ethnic Minorities and Three Principles of Self-esteem Formation: Turkish Children in The Netherlands

This study explores the importance of reflected appraisal, social comparison and self-attribution as sources of “academic” self-esteem among ethnic minority children. Turkish children in The Netherlands scored significantly lower on a standardized test of Dutch language command but did not have lower academic self-esteem in comparison with Dutch classmates. Self-attributed performance was the only important source of self-esteem among the Dutch. It was also an important source among the Turkish children in addition, however, to the perceived appraisal of Dutch classmates. These results indicate that to understand the level of self-esteem among different groups it seems necessary to concentrate on the processes of self-esteem formation and the way they operate in these groups. It is suggested that minority position and culture can affect the importance attached to different sources of self-esteem.     

Perceptions of ethnic discrimination by minority and majority early adolescents in the Netherlands

This research investigates perceptions of discrimination among ethnic majority and minority group early adolescents (aged between 10 and 12 years) living in the multi‐ethnic context of the Netherlands. In two studies (N = 679 and N = 2630), personal and group discrimination was examined in terms of name‐calling and social exclusion, and in relation to ethnic identity and family allocentrism. All early adolescents reported more group than personal discrimination. The personal‐group discrimination discrepancy (PGDD) was found independently of ethnic group, gender, allocentrism, and ethnic identity. Hence, the PGDD seems a more general phenomenon that already exists among early adolescents and across different domains. However, minority group participants perceived far more discrimination overall than majority group early adolescents, and the Turkish participants reported more discrimination than the Moroccan and Surinamese early adolescents. Furthermore, family allocentrism was positively related to perceived discrimination among all ethnic groups in Study 2 and among the Dutch in Study 1. In agreement with ethnic identity development models, strength of ethnic identity was not related to perceived discrimination. Ethnic identity was, however, positively related to allocentrism. In both studies, ethnic minority group participants had higher scores for allocentrism and for ethnic identity than majority group participants. In addition, boys had stronger ethnic identity than girls and ethnic identity was negatively associated with perceived discrimination for the boys but not for the girls. It is concluded that in order to understand early adolescents' perception of discrimination it is necessary to pay attention to basic (cognitive) tendencies that cross ethnic lines, to cultural and status differences between the majority group and ethnic minorities as a category and between ethnic minority groups, and to within‐group differences or individual level variables.     

The Role of Ethnic Socialization,Ethnic Identity and Self-Esteem: Implications for Bi-ethnic Adolescents’ School Adjustment

Bi-ethnic adolescents of marriage migrant mothers in Korea are often encouraged to be “pure” Koreans for their adjustments and not given the opportunities to explore their ethnic identity or to learn about their mother’s culture of origin. Existing studies conducted with mono-ethnic minorities in other countries, however, do not support this belief. We tested a conceptual model on the role of ethnic socialization, ethnic identity and self-esteem on school adjustment among bi-ethnic adolescents in Korea based on social identity theory and theoretical models of ethnic socialization and ethnic identity. We used data from 2015 National Survey of Multicultural Families. The study sample consisted of 296 adolescents aged 9–18 who were born between Korean fathers and Vietnamese marriage migrant mothers. We used structural equation modeling to specifically examine the association between ethnic socialization in terms of parents’ linguistic socialization and adolescents’ school adjustment mediated by ethnic identity in the form of ethnic regard and self-esteem among bi-ethnic adolescents. The results verified the hypothesized model, showing positive relationships between linguistic socialization and ethnic regard, ethnic regard and self-esteem, self-esteem and school adjustment, and ethnic regard and school adjustment. Additionally, the results of bootstrapping test showed that the indirect effect of linguistic socialization on self-esteem through ethnic regard was significant. The indirect effect of ethnic regard on school adjustment through self-esteem was significant and the indirect effect of linguistic socialization on school adjustment via ethnic regard and self-esteem was also significant. These results shed light on the important role of ethnic identity fostered at home among bi-ethnic adolescents of marriage migrant mothers in Korea.     

Intergroup structure and identity management among ethnic minority and majority groups: the interactive effects of perceived stability,legitimacy, and permeability

This paper is an examination, in a natural setting, of the interactive effects of perceived stability, legitimacy, and group permeability on group identification, stereotypes, and group feelings among Turkish‐Dutch and ethnically Dutch participants. The findings strongly support predictions derived from the social identity perspective. For the Turkish‐Dutch, a legitimate interethnic structure meant rather unstable relations and permeable group boundaries. For the Dutch, the same structure implied stability and impermeability. For the Turkish‐Dutch, a response pattern of individual mobility was found: if they viewed ethnic intergroup relations as legitimate and stable, permeability was negatively related to Turkish identification as well as to less stereotyping on the dimension defining Turkish identity. It was also related positively to Dutch identification and in‐group bias in relation to other ethnic minority groups. For the Dutch participants, higher perceived legitimacy was associated with stronger in‐group identification and more positive in‐group evaluation. Additionally, in a legitimate context, stability was, for them, related to a lower stereotyping of the Turkish out‐group on status‐relevant dimensions and more negative feelings towards ethnic out‐groups in general. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Adolescents with Turkish background in Norway and Sweden: a comparative study of their psychological adaptation

Using a questionnaire survey, this study compared psychological adaptation (self-esteem, life satisfaction, and mental health problems) of Turkish adolescents in Norway and Sweden, and examined to what extent ethnic and majority identities, acculturation strategies, and perceived discrimination accounted for adaptation among Turkish adolescents. The samples consisted of 407 Turks (111 in Norway and 296 in Sweden) with a mean age of 15.2 years and 433 host adolescents (207 in Norway, 226 in Sweden) with a mean age of 15.6 years. Turks in Norway reported poorer psychological adaptation than Turks in Sweden. Predictors of good adaptation were Turkish identity and integration, whereas poor adaptation was related to marginalization and perceived discrimination. The results indicated that the poorer adaptation of Turks in Norway compared to that of Turks in Sweden could be due to lower degree of Turkish identity and higher degree of perceived discrimination.     

Ethnic group preferences and the evaluation of ethnic identity among adolescents in The Netherlands.

The relationship between the evaluation of ethnic identity and ethnic group preferences among Dutch and that among ethnic minority adolescents was examined. It was predicted that a more positive attitude toward one's own ethnic identity would be associated with a higher level of ingroup preference. This prediction was confirmed, and this led to the question of how inter-ethnic relations and a positive ethnic identity could be stimulated simultaneously. Not only the ingroup aspect of ethnic group relations was studied but also the outgroup aspect. As members of the high-status group, the Dutch subjects showed a higher level of ingroup preference, compared with ethnic minorities. Also, own-group identification and own-group-oriented patterns of preferences among the Dutch subjects were found to be accompanied by the rejection of minority groups. No such tendency was found among adolescents from ethnic minorities.     

General self-esteem of adolescents from ethnic minorities in The Netherlands and the reflected appraisal process

This article examines the question of how the lack of differences in general self-esteem between adolescents of ethnic minorities and Dutch adolescents can be explained. Attention is focused on the reflected appraisal process. It was found that for adolescents of ethnic minorities there is a significant relationship between general self-esteem and the perceived evaluation of family members, and no such relationship with nonfamily members. For the Dutch adolescents the findings are the opposite, which may explain why adolescents of ethnic minorities in general do not have lower general self-esteem, despite low status, prejudice, and discrimination.     

Ethnic Identity and Discrimination: An Exploration of the Rejection-Identification Model in Arab American Adolescents

Research examining the rejection-identification model of ethnic identity in Arab American adolescents is scarce. This exploratory study investigates various factors in relation to a sample of 60 Arab American adolescents’ (aged 12–18 years) ethnic identity including discrimination and academic and global self-concepts. Ethnic identity was measured using the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure, which is composed of two factors including Affirmation/Belonging and Ethnic Search. The Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents was used to measure academic and global self-concepts. In addition, the lead author developed a questionnaire asking participants to self-report whether either they or another Arab student they knew had been treated badly or differently because of their ethnicity. Discrimination experience and Affirmation/Belonging were significant predictors of scholastic competence, while Affirmation/Belonging was the sole significant predictor in Global Self-Worth. High levels of ethnic identity in the area of Affirmation/Belonging seemed to play a protective role in global self-concept in the face of discrimination. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

An examination of ethnic identity and self-esteem with diverse populations: exploring variation by ethnicity and geography

The current study examined the relationships among ethnic identity and self-esteem across multiple ethnic groups within two distinct geographical locations (N = 1,344). In the current study, for same ethnic group members, the components of ethnic identity (i.e., exploration, resolution, and affirmation) were differentially related to self-esteem based on geographical context. Furthermore, within each geographical context, the strength of the relation between each ethnic identity component and self-esteem varied based on group membership, suggesting that the variables may be more or less influential on self-esteem depending on one's group membership. Based on these results, the exploration and resolution subscales of the Ethnic Identity scale (EIS) appear to be valid and reliable with diverse samples, whereas support for the affirmation subscale of the EIS is more tenuous. Finally, these findings suggest that ethnic identity may have varying salience and meaning for same ethnic group members in different geographical contexts (e.g., Asian Americans in California vs. Asian Americans in the Midwest).     

Assimilation ideology and situational well-being among ethnic minority members

Two experimental questionnaire studies were conducted to test whether assimilation ideology affects the relationship between ethnic self-esteem and situational well-being of Turkish-Dutch participants. Social identity theory argues that ethnic identity can buffer the effects of group identity threat on well-being, and self-esteem research suggests that a positively evaluated self-aspect can form an important source of well-being. Results show that in an assimilation context, ethnic self-esteem is positively related to feelings of global self-worth and general life-satisfaction. The findings suggest that ethnic self-esteem is an important factor for well-being in an assimilation context that undermines minority group members ability to live their ethnic identity and threatens their group’s positive distinctiveness.     

Impact of Summer Trip to Israel on the Self-Esteem of Jewish Adolescents

Psychological research has identified many positive effects of adolescents being aware of their religious and cultural backgrounds (Fiese, 1992). Religious rituals and community support facilitate developmental transitions. They also instill a stronger sense of identity. Mainstream North American society's emphasis on autonomy and individuality has meant that people are less reliant on religious and cultural rituals as a source of community strength. The lack of defined traditions and spiritual goals has left many of today's American adolescents confused. Jewish American adolescents, in particular, may not achieve a full sense of their religious and cultural background due to the preponderance of Christian symbols and ideology as well as to a de-emphasis of religion due to America's scientific/secular world view. A trip to Israel, the Jewish homeland, gives Jewish adolescents the chance to meet other Jewish people and to spend time in an environment which promotes Jewish ideology, history, and culture. Although past research on Jewish adolescents has found that a trip to Israel enhances a sense of Jewish identity, personality, and leadership skills (Kafka, London, Bandler, & Frank, 1990), no recorded empirical research has looked at possible changes in self-esteem. The goal of this research project was to determine if learning about and experiencing Israeli religious practices and culture foster greater Jewish self-esteem, Jewish identity, and/or self-concept for Jewish adolescents. The compiled data reveal that Jewish identity and Jewish self-esteem have a direct and positive bearing on each other. Jewish adolescents with a strong sense of Jewish identity are more likely to develop a higher level of Jewish self-esteem. Likewise, enhanced Jewish self-esteem is connected to a greater sense of Jewish identity. Although scores on the Jewish Identity and Jewish Self-Esteem Scales did not significantly correlate with self-concept scores on the Piers-Harris Children’ Self Concept Scale (1984), and the Piers-Harris scores did not significantly change over time, these results may be due to the above average pre-test self-concept scores of the participants. Adolescents from both the Camp and Israel groups scored in the above average range on the Piers-Harris Self-Concept Scale prior to and following the summer excursion. Directed at parents, scholars, and communities, this study calls attention to the importance of religiosity and culture to adolescent development. This research project also confirms this study's hypothesis that sending all Jewish adolescents to Israel between Middle and Late Adolescence lessens developmental ambiguity and strengthens self-esteem. By gaining an understanding of roots, identity, and self-esteem, adolescents and adults may become more accepting of themselves, thus enhancing their ability to be open and accepting of others—much needed qualities.     

The stability of self-concept during adolescence and early adulthood: a six-year follow-up study

The stability and gender differences of self-concept during adolescence and early adulthood were studied in 894 randomly selected Finnish subjects using the shortened version of the Coopersmith (1967) Self-Esteem Inventory. There were no differences between the men and women in the total score for self-concept. In early adulthood, men scored higher than women on general self-esteem, and women scored higher on the home-parents factor in each developmental period from pre-adolescence to adulthood. The stability of self-concept, as well as its different components, was rather high. General self-esteem showed the highest predictive value for the total score 6 years later.     

The Stability of Self-Concept During Adolescence and Early Adulthood: A Six-Year Follow-Up Study

The stability and gender differences of self-concept during adolescence and early adulthood were studied in 894 randomly selected Finnish subjects using the shortened version of the Coopersmith (1967) Self-Esteem Inventory. There were no differences between the men and women in the total score for self-concept. In early adulthood, men scored higher than women on general self-esteem, and women scored higher on the home-parents factor in each developmental period from preadolescence to adulthood. The stability of self-concept, as well as its different components, was rather high. General self-esteem showed the highest predictive value for the total score 6 years later.     

“民族认同，国家认同”与青少年自尊的关系

自尊被普遍认为是青少年的发展中的一个重要因素,已有研究发现它与心理幸福感呈显著的正相关,并与沮丧和绝望呈显著的负相关。就是由于自尊的心理上的重要性,所以有大量的研究来探讨它的影响因素。大多数对自尊的研究主要关注的是个体的能力和人际问的经历来作为自尊主要成分。尽管自尊的个人资源明显是很重要的,但是这样的关注忽略了自尊的群体成员方面的影响。本文就是探讨群体认同,尤其是考察民族认同和更广层面的国家认同.对少数民族青少年自尊的预测。     

Hispanics in Ivy: Assessing identity and perceived threat

Membership in social groups is an important aspect of the self-concept, as a number of theorists such as Tajfel (1981) have recognized, and ethnic identity is a major exemplar of such groupings. In the present research, we focus on the particular case of Hispanic identity and the degree to which that identity may be threatened for first-year Hispanic students who enter a predominantly Anglo university. Forty-five Hispanic students (17 female, 28 male) at two Ivy League universities were interviewed early in their first year to assess Hispanic identity, collective self-esteem (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1988), and perceived threats to Hispanic identity. In addition, we considered the degree to which strength of cultural background relates to self-esteem and to perceptions of threat. The majority of students claimed Hispanic as an important identity. Strength of cultural background generally acted as a buffer to perceived threat, particularly for men. Cultural background was also related to collective self-esteem for men but not for women, even though Hispanic identity was more important for women than men. The results attest to the importance of both gender and ethnicity to self-definition and self-esteem, as well as to the complexity of the relationships among these variables.We thank Tracey Revenson as well as the members of the Identity Research Seminar at the CUNY Graduate Center for their comments on an earlier version of this paper.     

少数民族青少年民族认同发展理论模型及其功能

青少年民族认同发展的三阶段理论模型和黑人民族认同发展模型的提出,为研究少数民族青少年的民族认同发展提供了一定的依据。少数民族青少年民族认同的发展与应付能力,自我效能感等因素有积极的相关,在一定程度上可以提高自尊,比如消极民族刻板印象的影响,增加心理归属感等。而且可以促发少数民族青少年亲社会态度的形成。     

Parents' Education and their Encouragement of Successful Secondary School Students from Ethnic Minorities in the Netherlands

The present study focuses on the education of parents and their encouragement of the school career of academically successful 17-year-old adolescents of Turkish and Moroccan background in the Netherlands. The participants of the study were 106 successful and less successful adolescents of Turkish, Moroccan and Dutch background. The successful ethnic minority parents were expected to be better able to stimulate their children's school career. It was concluded that parents' education is a factor in the success of both Turkish/Moroccan and Dutch background students. Their parents' high mobility orientation appeared to be an additional factor in the success of Turkish and Moroccan background students.     

Achievement motivation and academic performance among Turkish early and young adolescents in The Netherlands

The authors conducted 3 studies in which Turkish and other adolescents in the Netherlands completed questionnaires that addressed the importance of collectivist cultural values for achievement motivation and educational outcomes. Compared with other minority group students and Dutch students, the Turkish students had stronger family-oriented achievement motivation. In addition, only among the Turks was ethnic identification positively related to family motivation. Furthermore, there were no differences in individual achievement motivation between the Turks and Dutch, and only among the former group was a combination of family motivation and individual motivation found. Also, for the Turks, family motivation was positively related to task-goal orientation, which mediated the relationship between family motivation and academic performance. Individual motivation was an independent predictor of performance. For the other ethnic minority groups and the Dutch, family motivation was not related to task-goal orientation and performance. In addition, for these groups, task-goal orientation mediated the relationship between individual achievement motivation and performance.