An eye fixation analysis of multialternative choice

Eye fixations were recorded while subjects chose their most preferred of six used cars. Fixation sequences of the form X-Y-X-... were used to identify pair comparisons. This assumption was validated by verbal protocols and by a comparison between X-Y-X and X-Y-X-Y-... patterns. The results of three experiments showed: (1) that the multialternative choice process was composed primarily of pair comparisons; (2) that evaluative processing took placeonly during these comparisons; (3) that strategies for selecting the pairs were based primarily on information processing convenience; (4) that the sequence of pair comparisons was not used by the subjects as a sequential elimination process; and (5)that subjects changed their strategies to adapt to different task environments. These results have implications for current choice models and for the use of eye fixations in other complex tasks.     

Searching for many targets: An analysis of speed and accuracy

Three Ss scanned matrices of letters for 40 sessions in a test of Neisser’s claim that feature tests in high-speed searches operate independently and in parallel. In the multiple-target condition (MTC), the matrix contained any one of four target letters, while in the four single-target conditions (STC), the S knew which particular target was embedded in the list. In contrast to previous studies, the error rates for individual target letters in the MTC were analyzed separately rather than being pooled. Two Ss made more errors on the hardest target when searched for in the MTC than in the STC. This difference would be masked by pooling error rates. The third S’s scanning rate in the MTC was not as rapid as in the STC. Neither a sequential nor a strictly parallel feature processing model can account for these data.     

Modelling courage: The role of dissent in fostering independence

While dissent has been construed in terms of social support and informational influence, this paper hypothesizes that exposure to dissenting minority views, even when they are wrong, stimulates resistance to conformity and increased adherence to one's own views. In this study, individuals in groups of four judged the colour of a series of blue stimuli and were exposed to one individual who consistently judged the stimuli to be ‘green: inconsistently judged them to be 'green' or expressed no dissent. In a subsequent setting, when judging a series of red slides; subjects were exposed to a majority who repeatedly judged them as 'orange’. Exposure to dissent, whether it was consistent or inconsistent, substantially reduced the level of conformity. In fact, exposure to the consistent dissent led to almost complete independence.     

The short,unhappy life of student dissent

Student dissent was a short-lived phenomenon of the late 1960's. After a brief run at hope and glory, it was buried, circa 1970, by the combined efforts of high school faculties and lay populations served by them. The cause of death was antipathy on the part of these influential adults, and the killing blow was delivered by innumerable tradition-bound professional educators—especially administrators—who didn't want the disease to spread. In this article the authors look at change and dissent prior to the funeral and suggest that counselors, at least, might do well to consider exhuming the body.     

The choice of constraints in correspondence analysis

A discussion of alternative constraint systems has been lacking in the literature on correspondence analysis and related techniques. This paper reiterates earlier results that an explicit choice of constraints has to be made which can have important effects on the resulting scores. The paper also presents new results on dealing with missing data and probabilistic category assignment.I am most grateful to the following for their helpful comments. Arto Demirjian, Michael Greenacre, Michael Healy, Shizuhiko Nishisato, Roderick Mcdonald, and several anonymous referees.     

An eye fixation analysis of choice and judgment with multiattribute stimuli

The present paper examined the selection of processing heuristics for choice and judgment across a range of stimuli. Eye fixations were monitored while six subjects made choices or judgments of pairs of gambles, vacations, or gifts. Each stimulus was represented by three attributes that varied in the amount of dimensional interdependency. The two heuristics of interest were dimensional and holistic evaluation. Each manifested a characteristic pattern of eye fixations. Dimensional evaluation required alternating fixations from a single attribute of one stimulus to the same attribute of the other stimulus. Holistic evaluation was characterized by transitions from attribute to attribute within a single stimulus. The results demonstrated that when the stimulus attributes were either interdependent (gambles) or dissimilar (gifts), the processing heuristic was determined by stimulus characteristics. When the stimulus dimensions were neither interdependent nor dissimilar (vacations), the selection of a processing strategy was determined by the prescribed task. This study suggests that any global theory of choice or judgment must be validated over a wide range of stimuli.     

Team innovation and team effectiveness: The importance of minority dissent and reflexivity

Past research suggests that minority dissent in teams may foster team innovations. It is hypothesized, however, that minority dissent would predict team innovations only when teams have high levels of reflexivity - the tendency to overtly reflect upon the group's objectives, strategies, and processes and adapt them to current or anticipated circumstances. This hypothesis was tested in a field study involving a heterogeneous sample of 32 organizational teams performing complex, ill-defined tasks. Results showed more innovation and greater team effectiveness under high rather than low levels of minority dissent, but only when there was a high level of team reflexivity. Avenues for future research are discussed.     

Discrete dynamic choice: An extension of the choice models of thurstone and luce

The present paper deals with the extension of two well-known static discrete choice theories to the dynamic situation in which individuals make choices at several points in (continuous) time. A dynamic version of Luce's Axiom, “independence from irrelevant alternatives”, is proposed and some of its implications are derived. In the static case Yellott (J. Math. Psych. 1977, 15, 109–146) and others have demonstrated that an independent random utility model generated from the extreme value distribution exp(?e^?ax?b) becomes equivalent to Luce's Axiom. Yellott also introduced an axiom called “invariance under uniform expansions of the choice set”, and he proved that within the class of random utility models with independent identically distributed utilities (apart from a location shift) this axiom is equivalent to Luce's Axiom. These results are extended to the dynamic situation and it is shown that if the utility processes are expressed by so-called extremal processes the corresponding choice model is Markovian. A nonstationary generalization is proposed which is a substantial interest in applications where the parameters of the choice process are influenced by previous choice experience or by time-varying exogenous variables. In particular, it is demonstrated that the nonstationary model is Markovian if and only if the joint choice probabilities at two points in time have a particular form. Thus, the paper provides a rationale for applying a specific class of Markov models as the point of departure when modelling mobility processes that involve individual discrete decisions over time.     

Free-operant choice behavior: A molecular analysis

Pigeons' pecks to two concurrent initial-link stimuli occasionally produced one of two mutually exclusive terminal links. Further responding to the terminal-link stimulus produced food under fixed-interval or fixed-ratio schedules. In such concurrent chained schedules, investigators rarely use a changeover delay to control superstitious switching, although it is customary to use a changeover delay in simple concurrent schedules in which choice responses produce food directly. When terminal-link fixed-interval schedules were equal or similar in duration and no changeover delay was employed, conditional probabilities of choice for a schedule were found to be lower if the last choice was for that schedule than if the last choice was for the other schedule (“switching dependency”). Imposition of a changeover delay with equal or unequal terminal links produced the opposite pattern: conditional probabilities of choice for a schedule were higher if the last choice was for that schedule than if the last choice was for the other schedule. Turning off all chamber lights during the changeover delay interval attenuated these “repetition dependencies.” The results indicate that excessive switching can complicate the interpretation of data from concurrent chains much as from simple concurrent schedules, and that using blackouts to control switching may be preferable to using a changeover delay.     

Shopping destination choice in Tehran: An integrated choice and latent variable approach

Integrated choice and latent variable (ICLV) models are increasingly considered in many fields as a means to gain a deeper understanding into the decision process of individuals as well as to potentially improve predictive ability. Literature has shown that the application of ICLV in context of shopping destination choice has not been conducted yet. This study uses data collected from the city of Tehran, Iran on shopping destination choice of 812 individuals. Then these attitudinal questions are used for the development of latent variables regarding the attitude and lifestyle of the participants. By including one latent variable (LV) reflecting the attitudes of clothing and lifestyle’s of grocery travelers the structural model reveals a sample distribution of this LV conditional on fundamental socio-economic characteristics. The results of our latent variable model clearly confirm that personal attitude toward clothing shopping center and lifestyle indeed impact destination choice. The results show that our experiment and the expanded hybrid choice model (HCM) allow appropriately identifying and investigating the effects of mixtures of latent attitudes on the intention shopping destination choice.     

An extension of the deontic calculus DSC1

The chief aim of the paper is to extend the calculusDSC ₁ (see [4]) in such a way as to satisfy all the requirements listed in [4] as well as a further stipulation — called ‘the principle of uninvolvement’ — to the effect that neither deontic compatibility nor deontic incompatibility of codes (see [2]) should be presupposed in deontic logic.     

Risky choice: An examination of information acquisition behavior

The monitoring of information acquisition behavior, along with other process tracing measures such as response times, was used to examine how individuals process information about gambles into a decision. Subjects indicated preferences among specially constructed three-outcome gambles. The number of alternatives available was varied across the sets of gambles. A majority of the subjects processed information about the gambles in ways inconsistent with compensatory models of risky decision making, such as information integration (Anderson & Shanteau, 1970). Furthermore, the inconsistency between observed information acquisition behavior and such compensatory rules increased as the choice task became more complex. Alternative explanations of risky choice behavior are considered.     

The psychology of tokenism: An analysis

American society is analyzed as a gender-class system wherein tokenism is defined as a form of interclass mobility. Two role partners, Sponsor and Token, sustain the institution of tokenism: the Token is a member of the deviant class and the Sponsor is a member of the dominant class. The content and functioning of this role partnership are broadly defined. The limitations of tokenism and implications for change in the social system are discussed.     

Spaced responding and choice: a preliminary analysis

Pigeons were exposed to reinforcement both for short (2 < IRT < 3 sec) and long (10 < IRT < 11 sec) interresponse times. They developed bimodal interresponse-time distributions, which were decomposable into two independent component distributions under the control of the short and long contingencies respectively. The birds' allocation of responses between these two distributions was determined by a simple power-law relationship between reinforcement ratios, and response ratios derived from the component distributions. Comparison between this situation and concurrent choice situations raises the possibility that the power-law relation between ratios may be a more general law of choice than the matching of relative frequencies (probabilities).     

动机冲突影响混合跨期决策：趋近-回避动机理论视角

组织与个人面临的许多决策,既无纯粹获益,也无纯粹损失,往往需要同时对未来不同时间点的损益加以权衡,这类损益兼具的决策称为混合跨期决策。过往研究通常沿用纯粹获益或损失跨期决策的理论框架,缺乏与混合跨期决策相匹配的理论建构和决策过程探索。基于此,本研究从趋近-回避动机理论出发,探索动机冲突影响混合跨期决策的过程机制。研究1拟探讨混合跨期决策中动机冲突特点,及其与决策行为之间的关系。研究2则计划分别操纵影响动机冲突程度的内源性因素(得失金额的相对差异程度)和外源性因素(资源有限程度),试图揭示动机冲突程度与混合跨期决策之间的因果链条。研究3拟采用鼠标追踪技术,基于决策过程指标进一步探索动机冲突影响混合跨期决策的过程机制。我们预期该研究结果有利于从动机冲突视角揭示并建构混合跨期决策的作用机制,同时也将为涉及混合跨期情境的企业管理和个体消费决策提供科学依据。